Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2016 Apr 28;4(4):CD012122.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012122.pub2.

Chlorpromazine versus reserpine for schizophrenia

Selin Nur  1 , Clive E Adams
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Chlorpromazine versus reserpine for schizophrenia

Selin Nur et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: In the 1940s reserpine, refined from a plant extract that had been used for centuries, began to be used as a treatment for people with mental disorders and was one of the very first antipsychotic drugs. Its irreversible pharmacological potency and adverse effects meant that it has been withdrawn in the UK and its role has been superceded by 'newer' compounds. The effects of reserpine are of historical interest although there are some reports of it still being used in highly specialist situations in psychiatry. Chlorpromazine is also an old drug but it is still used for treatment of people with schizophrenia.

Objectives: To investigate the effects of two old medications (reserpine and chlorpromazine) for people with schizophrenia. Reserpine is now rarely used while chlorpromazine remains on the essential list of drugs of the World Health Organization (WHO).

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Schizophrenia Group's Study-Based Register of Trials (24 March 2016).

Selection criteria: We included randomised clinical trials focusing on chlorpromazine versus reserpine for schizophrenia that presented useable data.

Data collection and analysis: We extracted data independently. For binary outcomes, we calculated risk ratio (RR) and its 95% confidence interval (CI), on an intention-to-treat basis. We employed a fixed-effect model for analyses. We assessed risk of bias for included studies and created a 'Summary of findings' table using GRADE.

Main results: The review currently includes nine studies with an average 60 participants per study. All of these studies are now over 60 years old, conducted between 1955 and 1962. When chlorpromazine was compared with reserpine for people with schizophrenia, improvement in global state was better at short term for those receiving chlorpromazine (n = 781, 6 RCTs, RR 'not improved' 0.75 95% CI 0.62 to 0.92, low-quality evidence). Short-term improvement in paranoid distortion was measured using the Multidimensional Scale for Rating Psychiatric Patients (MSRPP). Data showed no clear difference between treatment groups (n = 19, 1 RCT, RR 1.33 95% CI 0.62 to 2.89, very low-quality evidence). There was no difference in functioning: occupational adjustment, medium term (n = 40, 1 RCT, RR 0.83 95% CI 0.47 to 1.47, moderate-quality evidence) and general behaviour (n = 98, 1 RCT, RR 0.79 CI 0.41 to 1.53, moderate-quality evidence). Adverse events were poorly reported. For 'toxic reaction' there was, again, no obvious difference between the two compounds (n = 210, 3 RCTs, RR 1.68 95% CI 0.43 to 6.54, moderate-quality evidence), and this also applied to leaving the study early (n = 229, 4 RCTs, RR 1.16 95% CI 0.94 to 1.42, moderate-quality evidence).

Authors' conclusions: Judged by standards of today, the evidence is largely of limited quality. However, some of these 1950s studies are remarkable in their foresight and clarity. Reserpine did have some effect on global state - but chlorpromazine did seem to perform better. Important issues regarding adverse effects were not really addressed by these trials. Chlorpromazine remains on the WHO list of essential drugs. Reserpine is now almost obsolete, although, probably as a result of evidence other than that reported in the pioneering trials used in this review.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Selin Nur: none known.

Clive Adames: none known.

Figures

1
1
Reserpine (Fred the Oyster 2014)
2
2
Rauwolfia serpentina (Vinayaraj 2012)
3
3
4
4
5
5
Study flow diagram.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 1 Global state: Not improved.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 2 Cognitive state: Not improved (various scales) (short term).
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 3 Mental state: Not improved (MACC ‐ Behavioural Adjustment scale).
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 4 Mental state: Not improved (MSRPP).
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 5 Functioning: Not improved (occupational adjustment) (medium term).
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 6 Adverse events (short term).
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 7 Leaving the study early: Due to adverse event (short term).
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 8 Behaviour: Not improved (MACC ‐ Behavioural Adjustment Scale) (short term).
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 9 Behaviour: Not improved (MSRPP) (short term).
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 CHLORPROMAZINE versus RESERPINE, Outcome 10 Behaviour: Not improved (medium term).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

Ayd 1956 {published data only}
    1. Ayd FJ. Thorazine and serpasil treatment of private neuropsychiatric patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;113:16‐21. - PubMed
Barrett 1957 {published data only}
    1. Barrett WM, Ellsworth RB, Clark LD, Enniss J. Study of the differential behavioral effects of reserpine, chlorpromazine, and a combination of these drugs in chronic schizophrenic patients. Diseases of the Nervous System 1957;XVIII(6):209‐15. - PubMed
Gardner 1955 {published data only}
    1. Gardner MJ, Hawkins HM, Judah LN, Murphree OD. Objective measurement of psychiatric changes produced by chlorpromazine and reserpine in chronic schizophrenia. Psychiatric Research Reports 1955;1:77‐83.
Kovitz 1955 {published data only}
    1. Kovitz B, Carter JT, Addison WP. A comparison of chlorpromazine and reserpine in chronic psychosis. American Medical Association Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1955;74:467‐71. - PubMed
    1. Kovitz B, Carter JT, Addison WP. A comparison of chlorpromazine and reserpine in chronic psychosis. Journal of the American Medical Association 1956;160:143. - PubMed
Kurland 1956 {published data only}
    1. Kurland AA. A comparison of chlorpromazine and reserpine in the treatment of schizophrenia: a study of four hundred cases. American Medical Association Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1956;75:510. - PubMed
Lasky 1962 {published data only}
    1. Lasky JJ, Klett CJ, Caffey EM, Bennett JL, Rosenblum MP, Hollister LE. Drug treatment of schizophrenic patients. A comparative evaluation of chlorpromazine, chloprothixene, fluphenazine, reserpine, thioridazine and triflupromazine. Diseases of the Nervous System 1962;23(12):698‐706.
Shepherd 1956 {published data only}
    1. Shepherd M, Watt DC. A controlled clinical study of chlorpromazine and reserpine in chronic schizophrenia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1956;19:232‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Wirt 1959 {published data only}
    1. Wirt R, Werner S, Wirt AL, Halloran AV, Marks PA, Hinckley RG, et al. Differential Treatment and Prognosis in Schizophrenia. Springfield, USA: Charles C Thomas, 1959.
Zeller 1956 {published data only}
    1. Zeller WW, Graffagnino PN, Cullen CF, Rietman HJ. Use of chlorpromazine and reserpine in the treatment of emotional disorders. Journal of the American Medical Association 1956;160:179‐84. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Abse 1960 {published data only}
    1. Abse WD, Dahlstrom WG, Tolley AG. Evaluation of tranquilizing drugs in the management of acute mental disturbance. American Journal of Psychiatry 1960;117:973‐80. - PubMed
Barsa 1956 {published data only}
    1. Barsa J, Kline NS. Azacyclonol (Frenquel) in the treatment of chronic schizophrenics. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;113:255‐6. - PubMed
Bennett 1956 {published data only}
    1. Bennett A, Ford F, Turk RE. Clinical investigation of chlorpromazine and reserpine in private psychiatric practice. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;112:782‐7. - PubMed
Bowes 1956 {published data only}
    1. Bowes HA. The ataractic drugs: the present position of chlorpromazine, frenquel, pacatal, and reserpine in the psychiatric hospital. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;113:530‐9. - PubMed
Foote 1958 {published data only}
    1. Foote ES. Combined chlorpromazine and reserpine in the treatment of chronic psychotics. Journal of Mental Science 1958;104:201‐5. - PubMed
Hollister 1956 {published data only}
    1. Hollister LE, Traub L, Beckman WG. Psychiatric use of reserpine and chlorpromazine: results of double‐blind studies. In: Kline NS editor(s). Psychopharmacology. Washington, USA: A.A.A.S., 1956:65‐74.
Holmberg 1956 {published data only}
    1. Holmberg G, Jonsson B, Mellgren A, Martens S. EEG changes in chlorpromazine and reserpine treatment. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Supplementum 1956;106:235‐40. - PubMed
Hormia 1956 {published data only}
    1. Hormia A. A comparison between combined reserpine‐chlorpromazine and chlorpromazine therapies in psychiatry. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica 1956;31:437‐46. - PubMed
Mason‐Browne 1957 {published data only}
    1. Mason‐Browne NL. Perphenazine ‐ a drug modifying consciousness. American Journal of Psychiatry 1957;114:173‐4. - PubMed
    1. Mason‐Browne NL, Borthwick JW. Effect of perphenazine (trilafon) on modification of crude consciousness. Diseases of the Nervous System 1957;18:300‐6. - PubMed
Rinaldi 1956 {published data only}
    1. Rinaldi F, Rudy L, Himwich HE. Clinical evaluation of azacyclonol, chlorpromazine, and reserpine on a group of chronic psychotic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 1956;112:678‐83. - PubMed
Rosner 1955 {published data only}
    1. Rosner H, Levine S, Hess H, Kaye H. A comparative study of the effect on anxiety of chlorpromazine, reserpine, phenobarbital, and a placebo. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1955;122:505‐12. - PubMed
Schmidt 1957 {published data only}
    1. Schmidt KE. Combined treatment with chlorpromazine and reserpine: an attempt at quantitative assessments in chronic schizophrenic patients. Journal of Mental Science 1957;103:200‐8. - PubMed
Shawver 1959 {published data only}
    1. Shawver JR, Gorham DR, Leskin LW, Good WW, Kabnick DE. Comparison of chlorpromazine and reserpine in maintenance drug therapy. Diseases of the Nervous System 1959;20:452‐7. - PubMed
Simon 1958 {published data only}
    1. Simon W, Wirt AL, Wirt RD, Halloran AV. Long‐term follow‐up study of schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 1965;12:510‐5. - PubMed
    1. Simon W, Wirt R, Wirt A, Halloran A, Hinckley R, Lund J, et al. A controlled study of the short‐term differential treatment of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1958;114:1077‐86. - PubMed

Additional references

Abdelfatah 2015
    1. Abdelfatah SA, Efferth T. Cytotoxicity of the indole alkaloid reserpine from Rauwolfia serpentina against drug‐resistant tumor cells. Phytomedicine: International Journal of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology 2015;22(2):308‐18. [PUBMED: 25765838] - PubMed
Adams 2005
    1. Adams CE, Rathbone J, Thornley B, Clarke M, Borrill J, Wahlbeck K, et al. Chlorpromazine for schizophrenia: a Cochrane systematic review of 50 years of randomised controlled trials. BMC Medicine 2005;3:15. [PUBMED: 16229742] - PMC - PubMed
Adams 2014
    1. Adams CE, Awad GA, Rathbone J, Thornley B, Soares‐Weiser K. Chlorpromazine versus placebo for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000284.pub3; CD000284] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Altman 1996
    1. Altman DG, Bland JM. Detecting skewness from summary information. BMJ 1996;313(7066):1200. - PMC - PubMed
Baumeister 2003
    1. Baumeister AA, Hawkins MF, Uzelac SM. The myth of reserpine‐induced depression: role in the historical development of the monoamine hypothesis. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 2003;12(2):207‐20. [PUBMED: 12953623] - PubMed
Bland 1997
    1. Bland JM. Statistics notes. Trials randomised in clusters. BMJ 1997;315:600. - PMC - PubMed
Boissel 1999
    1. Boissel JP, Cucherat M, Li W, Chatellier G, Gueyffier F, Buyse M, et al. The problem of therapeutic efficacy indices. 3. Comparison of the indices and their use [Apercu sur la problematique des indices d'efficacite therapeutique, 3: comparaison des indices et utilisation. Groupe d'Etude des Indices D'efficacite]. Therapie 1999;54(4):405‐11. [PUBMED: 10667106] - PubMed
Carpenter 1994
    1. Carpenter WT Jr, Buchanan RW. Schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine 1994;330(10):681‐90. [PUBMED: 8107719] - PubMed
Deeks 2000
    1. Deeks J. Issues in the selection for meta‐analyses of binary data. Proceedings of the 8th International Cochrane Colloquium; 2000 Oct 25‐28; Cape Town. Cape Town: The Cochrane Collaboration, 2000.
Divine 1992
    1. Divine GW, Brown JT, Frazier LM. The unit of analysis error in studies about physicians' patient care behavior. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1992;7(6):623‐9. - PubMed
Donner 2002
    1. Donner A, Klar N. Issues in the meta‐analysis of cluster randomized trials. Statistics in Medicine 2002;21:2971‐80. - PubMed
Egger 1997
    1. Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta‐analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997;315:629‐34. - PMC - PubMed
Elbourne 2002
    1. Elbourne D, Altman DG, Higgins JPT, Curtina F, Worthington HV, Vaile A. Meta‐analyses involving cross‐over trials: methodological issues. International Journal of Epidemiology 2002;31(1):140‐9. - PubMed
Exner 2002
    1. Exner JE. The Rohrschach Basic Foundations and Principles of Interpretation. Vol. 1, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, 2002.
Fraser 1996
    1. Fraser HS. Reserpine: a tragic victim of myths, marketing, and fashionable prescribing. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1996;60(4):368‐73. [PUBMED: 8873684] - PubMed
Fred the Oyster 2014
    1. Fred the Oyster. Chemical structure of reserpine. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reserpine.svg September 9, 2014.
Furukawa 2006
    1. Furukawa TA, Barbui C, Cipriani A, Brambilla P, Watanabe N. Imputing missing standard deviations in meta‐analyses can provide accurate results. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2006;59(7):7‐10. - PubMed
Garfield 1947
    1. Garfield SL. The Rorschach test in clinical diagnosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1947;3(4):375‐81. - PubMed
Ghosh 2010
    1. Ghosh A. Mayo Clinic Internal Medicine Board Review. OUP USA, 2010.
Gulliford 1999
    1. Gulliford MC. Components of variance and intraclass correlations for the design of community‐based surveys and intervention studies: data from the Health Survey for England 1994. American Journal of Epidemiology 1999;149:876‐83. - PubMed
Hamilton 1960
    1. Hamilton M, Smith AL, Lapidus HE, Cadogan EP. A controlled trial of thiopropazate dihydrochloride (dartalan), chlorpromazine and occupational therapy in chronic schizophrenics. Journal of Mental Science 1960;106:40‐55. [PUBMED: 14399273] - PubMed
Hartung 2015
    1. Hartung B, Sampson S, Leucht S. Perphenazine for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003443.pub3; CD003443] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Harvard Medical School 2005
    1. Harvard Medical School. Drug treatment of schizophrenia ‐ the family health guide: drug treatment of schizophrenia. http://www.health.harvard.edu/family_health_guide/drug‐treatment‐of‐schi.... Harvard Health Publications, September 1, 2005 [February 2005 Update].
Haynes 1994
    1. Haynes RB, Leenen FHH. Conquering hypertension: an illustrated guide to understanding treatment and control of high blood pressure. Conquering Hypertension: An Illustrated Guide to Understanding Treatment and Control of High Blood Pressure. PMPH‐USA, January 1, 1994:109. [ISBN: 0969778120; ISBN: 9780969778127]
Healy 1997
    1. Healy DJ, Dalack GW, Meador‐Woodruff JH. Clozapine‐reserpine combination for refractory psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 1997;25(3):259‐60. [PUBMED: 9264181] - PubMed
Higgins 2003
    1. Higgins JP, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG. Measuring inconsistency in meta‐analyses. BMJ 2003;327:557‐60. - PMC - PubMed
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.2 [updated September 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org..
Kay 1986
    1. Kay SR, Opler LA, Fiszbein A. Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) Manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi‐Health Systems, 1986.
Knapp 2004
    1. Knapp M, Mangalore R, Simon J. The global costs of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2004;30(2):279‐93. [PUBMED: 15279046] - PubMed
Lajtha 2013
    1. Abel Lajtha. Alterations of chemical equilibrium in the nervous system. ISBN: 1461571758, 9781461571759. Springer Science & Business Media, November 21, 2013:353.
Leon 2006
    1. Leon AC, Mallinckrodt CH, Chuang‐Stein C, Archibald DG, Archer GE, Chartier K. Attrition in randomized controlled clinical trials: methodological issues in psychopharmacology. Biological Psychiatry 2006;59(11):1001‐5. [PUBMED: 16905632] - PubMed
Leucht 2005
    1. Leucht S, Kane JM, Kissling W, Hamann J, Etschel E, Engel RR. What does the PANSS mean?. Schizophrenia Research 2005;79(2‐3):231‐8. [PUBMED: 15982856] - PubMed
Leucht 2005a
    1. Leucht S, Kane JM, Kissling W, Hamann J, Etschel E, Engel R. Clinical implications of brief psychiatric rating scale scores. British Journal of Psychiatry 2005;187:336‐71. [PUBMED: 16199797] - PubMed
Lopez‐Munoz 2004
    1. Lopez‐Munoz F, Bhatara VS, Alamo C, Cuenca E. Historical approach to reserpine discovery and its introduction in psychiatry [Aproximacion historica al descubrimiento de la reserpina y su introduccion en la clinica psiquiatrica.]. Actas Espanolas de Psiquiatria 2004;32(6):387‐95. [PUBMED: 15529229] - PubMed
Lyerly 1973
    1. Lyerly SB. Handbook of Psychiatric Rating Scales (NIMH). Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973.
Macarthur 1957
    1. Macarthur JG. The complications of reserpine therapy. Postgraduate Medical Journal 1957;33(385):544‐7. [PUBMED: 13477702] - PMC - PubMed
Marshall 2000
    1. Marshall M, Lockwood A, Bradley C, Adams C, Joy C, Fenton M. Unpublished rating scales: a major source of bias in randomised controlled trials of treatments for schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 2000;176:249‐52. - PubMed
Martindale 2015
    1. Royal Pharmaceutical Society. Martindale: the complete drug reference, chlorpromazine. Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference https://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/martindale/current/ms‐7021‐g.htm?q=.... The Pharmaceutical Press, 2015 [last reviewed: November 11, 2013]; [last modified: September 26, 2011].
National Institute of Mental Health 2015
    1. National Institute of Mental Health. Schizophrenia. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia‐booklet‐12‐20... 2015.
Overall 1962
    1. Overall JE, Gorham DR. The brief psychiatric rating scale. Psychological Reports 1962;10:799‐812.
Porteus 1945
    1. Porteus S. Porteus maze tests: applications in medical and allied fields. British Journal of Medical Psychology 1945;20(3):267–70.
Preskorn 2007
    1. Preskorn SH. Psychopharmacology, the evolution of antipsychotic drug therapy: reserpine, chlorpromazine, and haloperidol. Journal of Psychiatric Practice 2007;13(4):253‐7. [DOI: 10.1097/01.pra.0000281486.34817.8b] - DOI - PubMed
Rohrschach 1921
    1. Rohrschach H. (1921). Psychodiagnostik. Trans. Hans Huber Verlag, 1942.
Root 2013
    1. Bradley PB, Lewis JJ. The nervous system: central nervous system drugs. In: Root WS, Hofmann FG editor(s). The Nervous System: Central Nervous System Drugs. 1st Edition. Elsevier [first publisher: Academic Press Inc.], October 22, 2013 [first publication: 1963]:421‐83. [ISBN: 9781483275826; ISBN:1483275825]
Rosenbloom 2002
    1. Rosenbloom M. Chlorpromazine and the psychopharmacologic revolution. JAMA 2002;287(14):1860‐1. [DOI: 10.1001/jama.287.14.1860-JMS0410-6-1] - DOI - PubMed
Saha 2005
    1. Saha S, Chant D, Welham J, McGrath J. A systematic review of the prevalence of schizophrenia. PLoS Medicine 2005;2(5):e141. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020141; PUBMED: 15916472] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Samara 2014
    1. Samara MT, Cao H, Helfer B, Davis JM, Leucht S. Chlorpromazine versus every other antipsychotic for schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta‐analysis challenging the dogma of equal efficacy of antipsychotic drugs. European Neuropsychopharmacology: The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology 2014;24(7):1046‐55. [PUBMED: 24766970] - PubMed
Saraceno 2007
    1. Saraceno B, Ommeren M, Batniji R, Cohen A, Gureje O, Mahoney J, et al. Barriers to improvement of mental health services in low‐income and middle‐income countries. Lancet 2007;370(9593):1164‐74. [PUBMED: 17804061] - PubMed
Schatzberg 2009
    1. Schatzberg AF, Nemeroff CB. Textbook of Psychopharmacology. Fourth. The American Psychiatric Publishing, 2009:533.
Schofield 1954
    1. Schofield W, Hathaway SR, Hastings DW, Bell DM. Prognostic factors in schizophrenia. Journal of Consulting Psychology 1954;18(3):155‐66. - PubMed
Schuldiner 1993
    1. Schuldiner S, Liu Y, Edwards RH. Reserpine binding to a vesicular amine transporter expressed in Chinese hamster ovary fibroblasts. Journal of Biological Chemistry 1993;268(1):29‐34. [PUBMED: 8416935] - PubMed
Schulz 2010
    1. Schulz KF, Altman DG, Moher D. CONSORT 2010 statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 2010;340:c332. [PUBMED: 20332509] - PMC - PubMed
Schünemann 2008
    1. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Vist GE, Higgins JPT, Deeks JJ, Glasziou P, et al. Chapter 12: Interpreting results and drawing conclusions. In: Higgins JPT, Green S editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2008:359‐83.
Tardy 2014
    1. Tardy M, Huhn M, Engel Rolf R, Leucht S. Perphenazine versus low‐potency first‐generation antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 10. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009369.pub2; CD009369] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
The NMR Spectroscopy Facility 2015
    1. The NMR Spectroscopy Facility. Reserpine. http://www.southampton.ac.uk/nmr/capabilities/solution‐nmr/example‐spect.... University of Southhampton, April 19, 2015.
Turner 2007
    1. Turner T. Chlorpromazine: unlocking psychosis. BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 2007;334 Suppl 1:s7. [PUBMED: 17204765] - PubMed
Ukoumunne 1999
    1. Ukoumunne OC, Gulliford MC, Chinn S, Sterne JAC, Burney PGJ. Methods for evaluating area‐wide and organistation‐based intervention in health and health care: a systematic review. Health Technology Assessment 1999;3(5):1‐75. - PubMed
Vinayaraj 2012
    1. Vinayaraj. Rauwolfia serpentina. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rauwolfia_serpentina_(2)_‐_%E0%B... September 2, 2012.
Wechsler 1939
    1. Wechsler D. The Measurement of Adult Intelligence. Baltimore, MD, US: Williams & Wilkins Co., 1939. [DOI: 10.1037/10020-000] - DOI
WHO 2001
    1. WHO. The World Health Report 2001, Mental Health: New Understanding New Hope. The World Health Report 2001, Mental Health: New Understanding New Hope. World Health Organization, 2001:33‐68‐178.
WHO 2013
    1. WHO. WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. 18th Edition. World Health Organization, April 2013 [final amendments: October 2013]:33.
WHO 2015
    1. WHO. Mental Health, Schizophrenia. http://www.who.int/mental_health/management/schizophrenia/en/. World Health Organization, 2015.
Wood 2000
    1. Wood JM, Lilienfeld SO, Garb HN, Nezworski MT. The Rorschach test in clinical diagnosis: a critical review, with a backward look at Garfield (1947). Journal of Clinical Psychology 2000;56(3):395‐430; discussion 431‐4. [PUBMED: 10726675] - PubMed
Xia 2009
    1. Xia J, Adams CE, Bhagat N, Bhagat V, Bhoopathi P, El‐Sayeh H, et al. Loss to outcomes stakeholder survey: the LOSS study. Psychiatric Bulletin 2009;33(7):254‐7.

Publication types

MeSH terms

LinkOut - more resources