Revealing a 5,000-y-old beer recipe in China

Abstract

The pottery vessels from the Mijiaya site reveal, to our knowledge, the first direct evidence of in situ beer making in China, based on the analyses of starch, phytolith, and chemical residues. Our data reveal a surprising beer recipe in which broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), and tubers were fermented together. The results indicate that people in China established advanced beer-brewing technology by using specialized tools and creating favorable fermentation conditions around 5,000 y ago. Our findings imply that early beer making may have motivated the initial translocation of barley from the Western Eurasia into the Central Plain of China before the crop became a part of agricultural subsistence in the region 3,000 y later.

Keywords: Yangshao period; alcohol; archaeological chemistry; phytolith analysis; starch analysis.

Fig. 1.

Geographical Location of the Mijiaya Site.

Fig. 2.

The “beer-making toolkit” from Mijiaya Pit H82: (A) Pit H82 illustration in top and cross-section views, (B) funnel 1, (C) pot 6 in reconstructed form, (D) pot 3 in reconstructed form, and (E) pottery stove.

Fig. S1.

Analyzed Mijiaya artifacts not included in Fig. 1. Artifacts and their discovery contexts from the upper row to the lower row: (A) funnel 2 (H78), red circle indicating the sampling location of control sample 3; (B) pot 1 (H82); (C) pot 2 (H82); (D) pot 4 (H82); (E) pot 5 (H78), red circle indicating the sampling location of control sample 1 and control sample 4; (F) pot 7 (H78); (G) stone adze (H78).

Fig. S2.

Residues from the interior surface of funnel 1.

Fig. 3.

Starch and phytolith types from Mijiaya vessels (the starch types showing DIC and polarized views): (A) Broomcorn millet (P. miliaceum). (B) Triticeae. (C) Job’s tears (C. lacryma-jobi). (D) Snake gourd root (T. kirilowii). (E) Yam (Dioscorea sp.). (F) Lily (Lilium sp.). (G) Bilobate. (H) Cross. (I) Rondel. (J) η-shaped phytoliths, consistent with broomcorn millet. (K) Dendritic epidermal phytoliths, consistent with barley (H. vulgare). (Scale bars: 10 μm in A, H, and I; 20 μm In B–G; 50 μm in J and K.)

Fig. 4.

Damaged starch grains from Mijiaya vessels and brewing experiments. (A) Mijiaya starch grains showing pitting and channeling. (B) A Mijiaya starch grain showing swollen, folded, and distorted characteristics. (C) Fermented broomcorn millet (P. miliaceum) starch grains from the brewing experiment using broomcorn millet and barley (H. vulgare). (D) A fermented gelatinized starch grain from the brewing experiment using broomcorn millet and barley. (Scale bars: 10 μm in A and C; 20 μm in B and D.)

Fig. S3.

Starch grains from brewing experiments: (A) Malted broomcorn millet (P. miliaceum); (B) malted foxtail millet (S. italica); (C) malted barley (H. vulgare); (D) mashed broomcorn millet; (E) fermented broomcorn millet, showing pittings and damaged outer edges; (F) fermented broomcorn millet, showing pitting (Left) and gelatinization (Right); (G) mashed foxtail millet; (H) fermented foxtail millet, showing pitting and damaged outer edge; (I) fermented foxtail millet, showing gelatinization, merging, and loss of extinction cross; (J) mashed broomcorn millet and barley; (K) fermented broomcorn millet and barley, showing big hollows in the centers and damaged outer edges; (L) fermented broomcorn millet and barley, showing one gelatinized grain (Left) and one undamaged grain (Right); (M) mashed foxtail millet and barley; (N) a starch grain from fermented foxtail millet and barley, showing channeling and distortion; (O) a cluster of completely merged starch grains and loss of extinction cross from fermented foxtail millet and barley.

Fig. 5.

IC of residues from Funnel 1, showing the presence of oxalate.