Parenting and the development of effortful control from early childhood to early adolescence: A transactional developmental model

Abstract

Poor effortful control is a key temperamental factor underlying behavioral problems. The bidirectional association of child effortful control with both positive parenting and negative discipline was examined from ages approximately 3 to 13-14 years, involving five time points, and using data from parents and children in the Oregon Youth Study-Three Generational Study (N = 318 children from 150 families). Based on a dynamic developmental systems approach, it was hypothesized that there would be concurrent associations between parenting and child effortful control and bidirectional effects across time from each aspect of parenting to effortful control and from effortful control to each aspect of parenting. It was also hypothesized that associations would be more robust in early childhood, from ages 3 to 7 years, and would diminish as indicated by significantly weaker effects at the older ages, 11-12 to 13-14 years. Longitudinal feedback or mediated effects were also tested. The findings supported (a) stability in each construct over multiple developmental periods; (b) concurrent associations, which were significantly weaker at the older ages;

Figure 1

Conceptual model relating parenting behaviors and child effortful control from child ages 3 to 13–14 years. Legend: Child effortful control mediating the effect of prior parenting on future parenting Parenting mediating the effect of prior child effortful control on future effortful control Note: Model accounts for (a) dependence within the same constructs over time, (b) concurrent correlations, (c) bidirectional cross-lagged predictions between child effortful control and parenting, and (d) bidirectional longitudinal transactions between child effortful control and parenting (i.e., mediated effects highlighted in blue and green lines). In addition, (e) a time–invariant correlation between positive parenting and poor discipline was also estimated but is not shown.

Figure 2

Path model results for maternal positive parenting and poor discipline behaviors and child effortful control from child ages 3 to 13–14 years. Note: Figured numbers denote standardized parameter estimates and associated standard errors of effects for positive parenting (first line) above poor discipline (second line); Significant associations observed between concurrent positive parenting and poor discipline (r = −.13, p = .04 to −.35, p < .001).*** p < .001. ** p < .01. * p < .05.

Figure 3

Path model results for paternal positive parenting and poor discipline behaviors and child effortful control from child ages 3 to13–14 years. Note: Figured numbers denote standardized parameter estimates and associated standard errors for effects for positive parenting (first line) above poor discipline (second line); Significant associations observed between concurrent positive parenting and poor discipline (r = −.15, p = .02 to r = −.36, p = .01). *** p < .001. ** p < .01. * p < .05.