Do college students improve their grades by using prescription stimulants nonmedically?

Amelia M Arria¹, Kimberly M Caldeira², Kathryn B Vincent³, Kevin E O'Grady⁴, M Dolores Cimini⁵, Irene M Geisner⁶, Nicole Fossos-Wong⁷, Jason R Kilmer⁸, Mary E Larimer⁹

Affiliations

¹ Center on Young Adult Health and Development, University of Maryland School of Public Health, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, 2387 School of Public Health Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Electronic address: aarria@umd.edu.
² Center on Young Adult Health and Development, University of Maryland School of Public Health, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, 2387 School of Public Health Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Electronic address: caldeira@umd.edu.
³ Center on Young Adult Health and Development, University of Maryland School of Public Health, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, 2387 School of Public Health Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Electronic address: kvincent@umd.edu.
⁴ Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, 3109 Biology-Psychology Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Electronic address: ogrady@umd.edu.
⁵ Counseling and Psychological Services, University at Albany, 400 Patroon Creek Blvd. Suite 104, Albany, NY 12206, USA. Electronic address: dcimini@albany.edu.
⁶ Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, 1100 NE 45th St, Suite 300, Seattle, WA 98105, USA. Electronic address: geisner@uw.edu.
⁷ Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, 1100 NE 45th St, Suite 300, Seattle, WA 98105, USA. Electronic address: njf2@uw.edu.
⁸ Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, 1100 NE 45th St, Suite 300, Seattle, WA 98105, USA; Health and Wellness, Division of Student Life, University of Washington, 109 Elm Hall, Seattle, WA 98105, USA. Electronic address: jkilmer@uw.edu.
⁹ Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, 1100 NE 45th St, Suite 300, Seattle, WA 98105, USA. Electronic address: larimer@uw.edu.

PMID: 27469455
PMCID: PMC5140739
DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.07.016

Do college students improve their grades by using prescription stimulants nonmedically?

Amelia M Arria et al. Addict Behav. 2017 Feb.

. 2017 Feb:65:245-249.

doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.07.016. Epub 2016 Jul 19.

Authors

Amelia M Arria¹, Kimberly M Caldeira², Kathryn B Vincent³, Kevin E O'Grady⁴, M Dolores Cimini⁵, Irene M Geisner⁶, Nicole Fossos-Wong⁷, Jason R Kilmer⁸, Mary E Larimer⁹

Affiliations

¹ Center on Young Adult Health and Development, University of Maryland School of Public Health, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, 2387 School of Public Health Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Electronic address: aarria@umd.edu.
² Center on Young Adult Health and Development, University of Maryland School of Public Health, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, 2387 School of Public Health Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Electronic address: caldeira@umd.edu.
³ Center on Young Adult Health and Development, University of Maryland School of Public Health, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, 2387 School of Public Health Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Electronic address: kvincent@umd.edu.
⁴ Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, 3109 Biology-Psychology Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Electronic address: ogrady@umd.edu.
⁵ Counseling and Psychological Services, University at Albany, 400 Patroon Creek Blvd. Suite 104, Albany, NY 12206, USA. Electronic address: dcimini@albany.edu.
⁶ Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, 1100 NE 45th St, Suite 300, Seattle, WA 98105, USA. Electronic address: geisner@uw.edu.
⁷ Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, 1100 NE 45th St, Suite 300, Seattle, WA 98105, USA. Electronic address: njf2@uw.edu.
⁸ Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, 1100 NE 45th St, Suite 300, Seattle, WA 98105, USA; Health and Wellness, Division of Student Life, University of Washington, 109 Elm Hall, Seattle, WA 98105, USA. Electronic address: jkilmer@uw.edu.
⁹ Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, 1100 NE 45th St, Suite 300, Seattle, WA 98105, USA. Electronic address: larimer@uw.edu.

PMID: 27469455
PMCID: PMC5140739
DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.07.016

Abstract

Introduction: Many college students engage in nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (NPS) because they believe it provides academic benefits, but studies are lacking to support or refute this belief.

Methods: Using a longitudinal design, 898 undergraduates who did not have an ADHD diagnosis were studied. Year 3 GPA (from college records) of four groups was compared: Abstainers (did not engage in NPS either year; 68.8%); Initiators (NPS in Year 3 but not Year 2; 8.7%); Desisters (NPS in Year 2 but not Year 3; 5.8%); and Persisters (NPS in both years; 16.7%). Generalized estimating equations regression was used to estimate the association between NPS and change in GPA, controlling for sex and Year 2 GPA.

Results: GPA increased significantly within Abstainers (p<0.05), but did not change significantly within the other groups. Overall, the relationship between NPS pattern group and change in GPA was not statistically significant (p=0.081). NPS was generally infrequent, but Persisters used more frequently than Desisters (11.7 versus 3.4days in Year 2) and Initiators (13.6 versus 4.0days in Year 3, both ps<0.001), controlling for sex and Year 2 GPA.

Conclusions: We cannot rule out the possibility that NPS prevented declines in GPA, but we can conclude that students who engaged in NPS showed no increases in their GPAs and gained no detectable advantages over their peers. The results suggest that prevention and intervention strategies should emphasize that the promise of academic benefits from NPS is likely illusory.

Keywords: Academic performance; College students; Drug abuse; Prescription drug abuse; Substance use.

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Figures

**Fig 1**
Estimated marginal means and standard error bars for change in GPA during Years 2 to 3 of college, by nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (NPS) pattern group (n=898) *Note.* Sample is restricted to individuals who were never diagnosed with ADHD by Year 3. Change in GPA is computed as the difference between Year 3 GPA and Year 2 GPA, which were averaged from semesters 3-4 and 5-6, respectively. Results are adjusted for the effects of sex and Year 2 GPA. Normal distribution was assumed for GPA change score. Zero values for semester GPA were treated as missing because they cannot be distinguished from missing data due to studying abroad.

See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

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Do college students improve their grades by using prescription stimulants nonmedically?

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