Prevalence and Management of Diabetic Nephropathy in Western Countries

Abstract

Background: Diabetic nephropathy (DN) often results in end-stage renal disease, and this is the most common reason for initiation of dialysis in the United States. Complications of diabetes, particularly renal disease, substantially increase the risk of subsequent severe illness and death. The prevalence of DN is still rising dramatically, with concomitant increases in associated mortality and cardiovascular complications.

Summary: Renal involvement in type 1 and type 2 diabetes reflects a complex pathogenesis. Various genetic and environmental factors determine the susceptibility and progression to advanced stages of the disease. DN should be considered in patients who have had type 1 diabetes for at least 10 years with microalbuminuria and diabetic retinopathy, as well as in patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes with macroalbuminuria in whom other causes for proteinuria are absent. The glomerular characteristic features include mesangial expansion, thickened glomerular basement membrane, and hyalinosis of arterioles. The optimal therapy of DN continues to evolve. For all diabetic patients, practical management including blood glucose and blood pressure control with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone blockade combined with lipid control, dietary salt restriction, lowering the dietary protein intake, increased physical activity, weight reduction, and smoking cessation can reduce the rate of progression of nephropathy and cardiovascular disease.

Key message: DN is a complex disease linking hemodynamic and metabolic pathways with oxidative stress, and systemic inflammation. We summarize the current evidence of epidemiology, clinical diagnosis, and the current management of DN in Western countries.

Facts from east and west: The prevalence of DN is increasing in Asia and Western countries alike. The deletion (D) allele of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene is associated with progression to end-stage renal disease in Asian patients with DN, but this association is uncertain in Europeans. An association between DN and polymorphism of the gene coding for acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase β has been reported in Asian and Western populations. Both in Japan and the US, criteria for diagnosis are a 5-year history of diabetes and persistent albuminuria. Renal biopsy should be done in patients with severe hematuria, cellular casts and - in the US - hepatitis and HIV to rule out other pathologies. Diabetic retinopathy is considered a key criterion in Japan, but the absence of it does not rule out DN in the US. Enlargement of the kidney is observed as a diagnostic criterion in Japan. The differential use of renal biopsy as diagnostic tool might account for a different prevalence between Asian countries. Some Japanese diabetic patients show typical histological alterations for DN with a normal ACR and GFR. The clinical classification is similar between Japan and the US including five stages based on ACR and GFR. The Japanese guidelines do not include blood pressure values for the classification of DN. Guidelines for DN treatment are evolving quickly both in Asia and Western countries based on the numerous clinical trials performed worldwide. Targeting the angiotensin system for its hemodynamic and nonhemodynamic effects is a common approach. DPP-4 inhibitors are widely used in Japan and might have a higher glucose-lowering effect in Asian patients due to their specific diet. A randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study has been launched to assess the efficacy of the Chinese herbal tea extract Shenyan Kangfu in DN.

Keywords: Chronic kidney disease; Diabetic nephropathy; Glomerular hyperfiltration; Macroalbuminuria; Microalbuminuria.

Fig. 1

Glomerular pathological classification in DN. GBM = Glomerular basement membrane.