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Review
. 2016 Sep 29;9(9):CD011866.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011866.pub2.

Psychosocial interventions for psychostimulant misuse

Silvia Minozzi  1 , Rosella Saulle, Franco De Crescenzo, Laura Amato
Affiliations
Review

Psychosocial interventions for psychostimulant misuse

Silvia Minozzi et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Update in

  • Psychosocial interventions for stimulant use disorder.
    Minozzi S, Saulle R, Amato L, Traccis F, Agabio R. Minozzi S, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2024 Feb 15;2(2):CD011866. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011866.pub3. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2024. PMID: 38357958 Free PMC article.

Abstract

Background: Psychostimulant misuse is a continuously growing medical and social burden. There is no evidence proving the efficacy of pharmacotherapy. Psychosocial interventions could be a valid approach to help patients in reducing or ceasing drug consumption.

Objectives: To assess the effects of psychosocial interventions for psychostimulant misuse in adults.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group Specialised Register (via CRSLive); Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); MEDLINE; EMBASE; CINAHL; Web of Science and PsycINFO, from inception to November 2015. We also searched for ongoing and unpublished studies via ClinicalTrials.gov (www.clinicaltrials.gov) and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) (apps.who.int/trialsearch/).All searches included non-English language literature. We handsearched references of topic-related systematic reviews and the included studies.

Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials comparing any psychosocial intervention with no intervention, treatment as usual (TAU) or a different intervention in adults with psychostimulant misuse or dependence.

Data collection and analysis: We used the standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane.

Main results: We included a total of 52 trials (6923 participants).The psychosocial interventions considered in the studies were: cognitive behavioural therapy (19 studies), contingency management (25 studies), motivational interviewing (5 studies), interpersonal therapy (3 studies), psychodynamic therapy (1 study), 12-step facilitation (4 studies).We judged most of the studies to be at unclear risk of selection bias; blinding of personnel and participants was not possible for the type of intervention, so all the studies were at high risk of performance bias with regard to subjective outcomes; the majority of studies did not specify whether the outcome assessors were blind. We did not consider it likely that the objective outcomes were influenced by lack of blinding.The comparisons made were: any psychosocial intervention versus no intervention (32 studies), any psychosocial intervention versus TAU (6 studies), and one psychosocial intervention versus an alternative psychosocial intervention (13 studies). Five of included studies did not provide any useful data for inclusion in statistical synthesis.We found that, when compared to no intervention, any psychosocial treatment: reduced the dropout rate (risk ratio (RR): 0.83, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.76 to -0.91, 24 studies, 3393 participants, moderate quality evidence); increased continuous abstinence at the end of treatment (RR: 2.14, 95% CI 1.27 to -3.59, 8 studies, 1241 participants, low quality evidence); did not significantly increase continuous abstinence at the longest follow-up (RR: 2.12, 95% CI 0.77 to -5.86, 4 studies, 324 participants, low quality evidence); significantly increased the longest period of abstinence: (standardised mean difference (SMD): 0.48, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.63, 10 studies, 1354 participants, high quality evidence). However, it should be noted that the in the vast majority of the studies in this comparison the specific psychosocial treatment assessed in the experimental arm was given in add on to treatment as usual or to another specific psychosocial or pharmacological treatment which was received by both groups. So, many of the control groups in this comparison were not really untreated. Receiving some amount of treatment is not the same as not receiving any intervention, so we could argue that the overall effect of the experimental psychosocial treatment could be smaller if given in add on to TAU or to another intervention than if given to participants not receiving any intervention; this could translate to a smaller magnitude of the effect of the psychosocial intervention when it is given in add on.When compared to TAU, any psychosocial treatment reduced dropout rate (RR: 0.72, 95% CI 0.59 to 0.89, 6 studies, 516 participants, moderate quality evidence), did not increase continuous abstinence at the end of treatment (RR: 1.27, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.72, 2 studies, 224 participants, low quality evidence), did not increase longest period of abstinence (MD -3.15 days, 95% CI -10.35 to 4.05, 1 study, 110 participants, low quality evidence). No studies in this comparison assessed the outcome of continuous abstinence at longest follow-up.There were few studies comparing two or more psychosocial interventions, with small sample sizes and considerable heterogeneity in terms of the types of interventions assessed. None reported significant results.None of the studies reported harms related to psychosocial interventions.

Authors' conclusions: The addition of any psychosocial treatment to treatment as usual (usually characterised by group counselling or case management) probably reduces the dropout rate and increases the longest period of abstinence. It may increase the number of people achieving continuous abstinence at the end of treatment, although this might not be maintained at longest follow-up. The most studied and the most promising psychosocial approach to be added to treatment as usual is probably contingency management. However, the other approaches were only analysed in a few small studies, so we cannot rule out the possibility that the results were not significant because of imprecision. When compared to TAU, any psychosocial treatment may improve adherence, but it may not improve abstinence at the end of treatment or the longest period of abstinence.The majority of the studies took place in the United States, and this could limit the generalisability of the findings, because the effects of psychosocial treatments could be strongly influenced by the social context and ethnicity. The results of our review do not answer the most relevant clinical question, demonstrating which is the most effective type of psychosocial approach.Further studies should directly compare contingency management with the other psychosocial approaches.

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Conflict of interest statement

Silvia Minozzi: none known.

Rosella Saulle: none known.

Franco De Crescenzo: none known.

Laura Amato: none known.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
4
4
Funnel plot of comparison: 1 any treatment vs no intervention, outcome: 1.1 dropout.
5
5
Funnel plot of comparison: 1 Any psychosocial treatment vs no intervention, outcome: 1.7 Longest period of abstinence.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, end of treatment.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 3 Point abstinence, longest follow‐up.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 4 Continuous abstinence, end of treatment.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 5 Continuous abstinence, longest follow‐up.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 6 Frequency of drug intake, longest follow‐up.
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 7 Longest period of abstinence.
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 8 Craving.
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 9 Severity of dependence.
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 Any psychosocial treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 10 Depression.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, end of treatment.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 3 Point abstinence, longest follow‐up.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 4 Continuous abstinence, end of treatment.
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 5 Continuous abstinence, longest follow‐up.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 6 Frequency of drug intake, longest follow‐up.
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 7 Longest period of abstinence.
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 8 Craving.
2.9
2.9. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 9 Severity of dependence.
2.10
2.10. Analysis
Comparison 2 Single treatment versus no intervention, Outcome 10 Depression.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Any psychosocial treatment versus TAU, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 Any psychosocial treatment versus TAU, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, end of treatment.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 Any psychosocial treatment versus TAU, Outcome 3 Point abstinence, longest follow up.
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 Any psychosocial treatment versus TAU, Outcome 4 Continuous abstinence, end of treatment.
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3 Any psychosocial treatment versus TAU, Outcome 5 Longest period of abstinence.
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3 Any psychosocial treatment versus TAU, Outcome 6 Severity of dependence (ASI).
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Single treatment versus TAU, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Single treatment versus TAU, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, end of treatment.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Single treatment versus TAU, Outcome 3 Point abstinence, longest follow up.
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4 Single treatment versus TAU, Outcome 4 Continuous abstinence, end of treatment.
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4 Single treatment versus TAU, Outcome 5 Longest period of abstinence.
4.6
4.6. Analysis
Comparison 4 Single treatment versus TAU, Outcome 6 Severity of dependence (ASI).
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 CM versus no CM, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5 CM versus no CM, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, longest follow‐up.
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5 CM versus no CM, Outcome 3 Continuous abstinence, end of treatment.
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5 CM versus no CM, Outcome 4 Frequency of drug intake, longest follow‐up.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 CBT versus interpersonal therapy, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 CBT versus interpersonal therapy, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, end of treatment.
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6 CBT versus interpersonal therapy, Outcome 3 Continuous abstinence, end of treatment.
6.4
6.4. Analysis
Comparison 6 CBT versus interpersonal therapy, Outcome 4 Point abstinence, longest follow‐up.
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7 CBT versus 12‐step facilitation, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
7.2
7.2. Analysis
Comparison 7 CBT versus 12‐step facilitation, Outcome 2 Continuous abstinence, end of treatment.
7.3
7.3. Analysis
Comparison 7 CBT versus 12‐step facilitation, Outcome 3 Continuous abstinence, longest follow‐up.
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8 CBT versus CM, Outcome 1 Point abstinence, end of treatment.
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8 CBT versus CM, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, longest follow‐up.
8.3
8.3. Analysis
Comparison 8 CBT versus CM, Outcome 3 Frequency of drug intake, longest follow‐up (days/months).
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9 CBT versus individual counselling, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
9.2
9.2. Analysis
Comparison 9 CBT versus individual counselling, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, end of treatment.
9.3
9.3. Analysis
Comparison 9 CBT versus individual counselling, Outcome 3 Point abstinence, longest follow‐up.
10.1
10.1. Analysis
Comparison 10 Interpersonal versus individual counselling, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
10.2
10.2. Analysis
Comparison 10 Interpersonal versus individual counselling, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, end of treatment.
10.3
10.3. Analysis
Comparison 10 Interpersonal versus individual counselling, Outcome 3 Point abstinence, longest follow‐up.
11.1
11.1. Analysis
Comparison 11 CBT versus ACT, Outcome 1 Dropouts.
11.2
11.2. Analysis
Comparison 11 CBT versus ACT, Outcome 2 Point abstinence, end of treatment.
11.3
11.3. Analysis
Comparison 11 CBT versus ACT, Outcome 3 Point abstinence, longest follow‐up.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

References to studies included in this review

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Carroll 2014 {published data only}
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Dursteler‐MacFarland 2013 {published data only}
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Festinger 2014 {published data only}
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Garcia‐Fernandez 2011 {published data only}
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Garcia‐Rodriguez 2007 {published data only}
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Ghitza 2007 {published data only}
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Higgins 2000 {published data only}
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Kirby 1998a {published data only}
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Knealing 2006 {published data only}
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Landovitz 2015 {published data only}
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Mitcheson 2007 {published data only}
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NCT01140880 {published data only}
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Peirce 2006 {published data only}
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Petitjean 2014 {published data only}
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Petry 2005a {published data only}
    1. Peirce JM, Petry NM, Roll JM, Kolodner K, Krasnansky J, Stabile PQ, et al. Correlates of stimulant treatment outcome across treatment modalities. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 2009;35(1):48‐53. - PMC - PubMed
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Petry 2005b {published data only}
    1. Petry NM, Martin B, Simcic F. Prize reinforcement contingency management for cocaine dependence: integration with group therapy in a methadone clinic. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2005;73(2):354‐9. - PubMed
Petry 2007 {published data only}
    1. Petry NM, Alessi S M, Hanson T, Sierra S. Randomized trial of contingent prizes versus vouchers in cocaine‐using methadone patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2007;75(6):983‐91. - PubMed
Petry 2012a {published data only}
    1. Petry NM, Alessi SM, Ledgerwood DM. A randomized trial of contingency management delivered by community therapists. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2012;80(2):286‐98. - PMC - PubMed
Petry 2012b {published data only}
    1. Petry NM, Barry D, Alessi SM, Rounsaville BJ, Carroll KM. A randomized trial adapting contingency management targets based on initial abstinence status of cocaine‐dependent patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2012;80(2):276‐85. - PMC - PubMed
Petry 2013 {published data only}
    1. Petry NM, Alessi SM, Rash CJ. A randomized study of contingency management in cocaine‐dependent patients with severe and persistent mental health disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2013;130(1‐3):234‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Poling 2006 {published data only}
    1. Poling J, Oliveto A, Petry N, Sofuoglu M, Gonsai K, Gonzalez G, et al. Six‐month trial of bupropion with contingency management for cocaine dependence in a methadone‐maintained population. Archives of General Psychiatry 2006; Vol. 63:219‐28. - PubMed
Rawson 2002 {published data only}
    1. Farabee D, Rawson R, McCann M. Adoption of drug avoidance activities among patients in contingency management and cognitive‐behavioral treatments. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2002;23(4):343‐50. - PubMed
    1. Rawson RA, Huber A, McCann M, Shoptaw S, Farabee D, Reiber C, et al. A comparison of contingency management and cognitive‐behavioral approaches during methadone maintenance treatment for cocaine dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry 2002;59(9):817‐24. - PubMed
Roll 2013 {published data only}
    1. Roll JM, Chudzynski J, Cameron JM, Howell DN, McPherson S. Duration effects in contingency management treatment of methamphetamine disorders. Addictive Behaviors 2013;38(9):2455‐62. - PMC - PubMed
Sanchez‐Hervas 2010 {published data only}
    1. Sanchez‐Hervas E, Secades‐Villa R, Zacares Romaguera F, Garcia‐Rodriguez O, Fernandez‐Hermida JR, Santonja Gomez FJ. Psychological treatment for cocaine addicts in public health services [Tratamiento psicologico para dependientes a la cocaina en la red sanitaria publica]. Trastornos adictivos 2008;10(4):275‐83.
    1. Sanchez‐Hervas E, Zacares‐Romaguera F, Garcia‐Rodriguez O, Secades‐Villa R, Fernandez‐Hermida JR. Community reinforcement approach (CRA) for cocaine addicts: establishment in a public health setting. Anales de Psiquiatria 2008;24(4):153‐8.
    1. Secades‐Villa R, Sanchez‐Hervas E, Zacares‐Romaguera F, Garcia‐Rodriguez O, Santonja‐Gomez FJ, Garcia‐Fernandez G. Community Reinforcement Approach (CRA) for cocaine dependence in the Spanish public health system: 1 year outcome. Drug and Alcohol Review 2011;30(6):606‐12. - PubMed
Schottenfeld 2011 {published data only}
    1. NCT00914381. Behavioral treatment for cocaine dependent women. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00914381 2009.
    1. Schottenfeld RS, Moore B, Pantalon MV. Contingency management with community reinforcement approach or twelve‐step facilitation drug counseling for cocaine dependent pregnant women or women with young children. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2011;118:48‐55. - PubMed
Secades Villa 2013 {published data only}
    1. Secades‐Villa R, Garcia‐Fernandez G, Pena‐Suarez E, Garcia‐Rodriguez O, Sanchez‐Hervas E, Fernandez‐Hermida JR. Contingency management is effective across cocaine‐dependent outpatients with different socioeconomic status. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2013;44(3):349‐54. - PubMed
Shoptaw 2005 {published data only}
    1. Jaffe A, Shoptaw S, Stein J, Reback CJ, Rotheram‐Fuller E. Depression ratings, reported sexual risk behaviors, and methamphetamine use: latent growth curve models of positive change among gay and bisexual men in an outpatient treatment program. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2007;15(3):301‐7. - PubMed
    1. Shoptaw S, Reback CJ, Peck JA, Yang X, Rotheram‐Fuller E, Larkins S, et al. Behavioral treatment approaches for methamphetamine dependence and HIV‐related sexual risk behaviors among urban gay and bisexual men. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2005;78(2):125‐34. - PubMed
Shoptaw 2008 {published data only}
    1. Shoptaw S, Reback CJ, Larkins S, Wang PC, Rotheram‐Fuller E, Dang J, et al. Outcomes using two tailored behavioral treatments for substance abuse in urban gay and bisexual men. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2008; Vol. 35, issue 3:285‐93. - PubMed
Silverman 1996 {published data only}
    1. Silverman K, Higgins ST, Brooner RK, Montoya ID, Cone EJ, Schuster CR, et al. Sustained cocaine abstinence in methadone maintenance patients through voucher‐based reinforcement therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry 1996;53(5):409‐15. - PubMed
Silverman 1998 {published data only}
    1. Silverman K, Wong CJ, Umbricht‐Schneiter A, Montoya ID, Schuster CR, Preston KL. Broad beneficial effects of cocaine abstinence reinforcement among methadone patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1998;66(5):811‐24. - PubMed
Smout 2010 {published data only}
    1. Smout MF, Longo M, Harrison S, Minniti R, Wickes W, White JM. Psychosocial treatment for methamphetamine use disorders: a preliminary randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavior therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. Substance Abuse 2010; Vol. 31, issue 2:98‐107. - PubMed
Stein 2009 {published data only}
    1. Stein MD, Herman DS, Anderson BJ. A motivational intervention trial to reduce cocaine use. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2009;36:118‐25. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Alessi 2007 {published data only}
    1. Alessi SM, Hanson T, Wieners M, Petry NM. Low‐cost contingency management in community clinics: delivering incentives partially in group therapy. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2007;15(3):293‐300. - PubMed
Alim 1995 {published data only}
    1. Alim TN, Rosse RB, Vocci FJ Jr, Lindquist T, Deutsch SI. Dethylpropion pharmacotherapeutic adjuvant therapy for inpatient treatment of cocaine dependence: a test of the cocaine‐agonist hypothesis. Clinical Neuropharmacology 1995;18(2):183‐95. - PubMed
Azrin 1994 {published data only}
    1. Azrin NH, McMahon PT, Donouhe B, Besalel VA, Lapinski KJ, Kogan ES, et al. Behavior therapy for drug abuse: a controlled treatment outcome study. Behaviour Research & Therapy 1994;32(8):857‐66. - PubMed
Azrin 1996 {published data only}
    1. Azrin NH, Acierno R, Kogan ES, Donouhe B, Besalel VA, McMahon PT. Follow‐up results of Supportive versus Behavioral Therapy for illicit drug use. Behaviour Research & Therapy 1996;34(1):41‐6. - PubMed
Barrowclough 2009 {published data only}
    1. Barrowclough C, Haddock G, Beardmore R, Conrod P, Craig T, Davies L, et al. Evaluating integrated MI and CBT for people with psychosis and substance misuse: recruitment, retention and sample characteristics of the MIDAS trial. Addictive Behaviors 2009;34(10):859‐66. - PubMed
Bellack 2006 {published data only}
    1. Bellack AS, Bennett ME, Gearon JS, Brown CH, Yang Y. A randomized clinical trial of a new behavioral treatment for drug abuse in people with severe and persistent mental illness. Archives of General Psychiatry 2006;63(4):426‐32. - PubMed
Bickel 2008 {published data only}
    1. Bickel WK, Marsch LA, Buchhalter AR, Badger GJ. Computerized behavior therapy for opioid‐dependent outpatients: a randomized controlled trial. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2008;16(2):132‐43. - PMC - PubMed
Brewer 2009 {published data only}
    1. Brewer JA, Sinha R, Chen JA, Michalsen RN, Babuscio TA, Nich C, et al. Mindfulness training and stress reactivity in substance abuse: results from a randomized, controlled stage I pilot study. Substance Abuse: Official Publication of the Association for Medical Education and Research in Substance Abuse 2009;30(4):306‐17. - PMC - PubMed
Brooner 1998 {published data only}
    1. Brooner RK, Kidorf M, King VL, Stoller K. Preliminary evidence of good treatment response in antisocial drug abusers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1998;49:249‐60. - PubMed
Campbell 2014 {published data only}
    1. Campbell ANC, Nunes EV, Matthews AG, Stitzer M, Miele GM, Polsky D, et al. Internet‐delivered treatment for substance abuse: a multisite randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry 2014;171(6):683‐90. - PMC - PubMed
Chen 2013 {published data only}
    1. Chen KW, Berger CC, Gandhi D, Weintraub E, Lejuez CW. Adding integrative meditation with ear acupressure to outpatient treatment of cocaine addiction: a randomized controlled pilot study. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2013;19(3):204‐10. - PubMed
Covi 2002 {published data only}
    1. Covi L, Hess JM, Schroeder JR, Preston KL. A dose response study of cognitive behavioral therapy in cocaine abusers . Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2002;23(3):191‐7. - PubMed
Dansereau 1996 {published data only}
    1. Dansereau DF, Joe GW, Dees SM, Simpson DD. Ethnicity and the effects of mapping‐enhance drug abuse counseling. Addictive Behaviors 1996;21(3):363‐76. - PubMed
Dees 1997 {published data only}
    1. Dees SM, Dansereau DF, Simpson DD. Mapping‐enhanced drug abuse counseling: urinalysis results in the first year of methadone treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 1997;14(1):45‐54. - PubMed
DeFulio 2009 {published data only}
    1. DeFulio A, Donlin WD, Wong CJ, Silverman K. Employment‐based abstinence reinforcement as a maintenance intervention for the treatment of cocaine dependence: a randomized controlled trial. Addiction 2009;104(9):1530‐8. - PMC - PubMed
    1. DeFulio A, Silverman K. Employment‐based abstinence reinforcement as a maintenance intervention for the treatment of cocaine dependence: post‐intervention outcomes. Addiction 2011;106(5):960‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Donovan 2013 {published data only}
    1. Donovan DM, Daley DC, Brigham GS, Hodgkins CC, Perl HI, Garrett SB, et al. Stimulant abuser groups to engage in 12‐Step: a multisite trial in the National Institute on Drug Abuse Clinical Trials Network. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2013;44(1):103–114. - PMC - PubMed
Gawin 1984 {published data only}
    1. Gawin FH, Kleber HD. Cocaine Abuse Treatment. Open Pilot Trial With Desipramine and Lithium Carbonate. Archives of General Psychiatry 1984;41(9):903‐9. - PubMed
Gawin 1989 {published data only}
    1. Gawin FH, Kleber HD, Byck R, Rounsaville BJ, Kosten TR, Jatlow PI, et al. Desipramine facilitation of initial cocaine abstinence. Archives of General Psychiatry 1989;46(2):117‐21. - PubMed
Glasner‐Edwards 2007 {published data only}
    1. Glasner‐Edwards S, Tate SR, McQuaid JR, Cummins K, Granholm E, Brown SA. Mechanisms of action in integrated cognitive‐behavioral treatment versus twelve‐step facilitation for substance‐dependent adults with comorbid major depression. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 2007;68(5):663‐72. - PubMed
Gonçalves 2014 {published data only}
    1. Gonçalves PD, Ometto M, Bechara A, Malbergier A, Amaral R, Nicastri S, et al. Motivational interviewing combined with chess accelerates improvement in executive functions in cocaine dependent patients: A one‐month prospective study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2014;141:79‐84. - PubMed
Gottheil 1998 {published data only}
    1. Gottheil E, Weinstein SP, Sterling RC, Lundy A, Serota RD. A randomised controlled study of the effectiveness of intensive outpatient treatment for cocaine dependence. Psychiatric Services 1998;49(6):782‐7. - PubMed
    1. Weinstein SP, Gottheil E, Sterling RC. Randomized comparison of intensive outpatient vs individual therapy for cocaine abusers. Journal of Addictive Disorders 1997;16:41‐56. - PubMed
Gross 2006 {published data only}
    1. Gross A, Marsch LA, Badger GJ, Bickel WK. A comparison between low‐magnitude voucher and buprenorphine medication contingencies in promoting abstinence from opioids and cocaine. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2006;14(2):148‐56. - PubMed
Hall 1994 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Tunis S, Triffleman E, Banys P, Clark HW, Tusel D, et al. Continuity of care and desipramine in primary cocaine abusers. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1994;182(10):570‐5. - PubMed
Hawkins 1989 {published data only}
    1. Hawkins DJ, Catalano RF, Gillmore MR, Wells EA. Skills training for drug abusers: generalization, maintenance, and effects on drug use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1989;57(4):559‐63. - PubMed
Hoffman 1994 {published data only}
    1. Hoffman JA, Caudill BD, Koman JJ, Luckey JW, Flynn PM, Hubbard RL. Comparative cocaine abuse treatment strategies: enhancing client retention and treatment exposure. Journal of Addictive Diseases 1994;13(4):115‐28. - PubMed
    1. Hoffman JA, Caudill BD, Koman JJ, Luckey JW, Flynn PM, Mayo DW. Psychosocial treatments for cocaine abuse: 12‐month treatment outcomes. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 1996;13(1):3‐11. - PubMed
Islam 2014 {published data only}
    1. Islam LZ. Using behavioral incentives to promote exercise compliance in women with cocaine dependence [Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering]. ProQuest Information & Learning. 2014.
Jones 2005 {published data only}
    1. Jones HE, Wong CJ, Tuten M, Stitzer ML. Reinforcement‐based therapy: 12‐month evaluation of an outpatient drug‐free treatment for heroin abusers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2005;79(2):119‐28. - PubMed
Kang 1991 {published data only}
    1. Kang SY, Kleinman PH, Woody GE, Millman RB, Todd TC, Kemp J, et al. Outcomes for cocaine abusers after once‐a‐week psychosocial therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry 1991;148(5):630‐5. - PubMed
Keoleian 2013 {published data only}
    1. Keoleian V, Stalcup SA, Polcin DL, Brown M, Galloway G. A cognitive behavioral therapy‐based text messaging intervention for methamphetamine dependence. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 2013;45(5):434‐42. - PMC - PubMed
Kidorf 2013 {published data only}
    1. Kidorf M, Brooner RK, Gandotra N, Antoine D, King VL, Peirce J, et al. Reinforcing integrated psychiatric service attendance in an opioid‐agonist program: A randomized and controlled trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2013;133(1):30‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Kiluk 2010 {published data only}
    1. Kiluk BD, Nich C, Babuscio T, Carroll KM. Quality versus quantity: acquisition of coping skills following computerized cognitive behavioral therapy for substance use disorders. Addiction 2010;105(12):2120‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Knight 1994 {published data only}
    1. Knight DK, Dansereau DF, Joe GW, Simpson DD. The role of node‐link mapping in individual and group counseling. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 1994;20(4):517‐27. - PubMed
Kouri 1995 {published data only}
    1. Kouri EM, Lukas SE, Mendelson JH. P300 Assessment of opiate and cocaine users: effects of detoxification and buprenorphine treatment. Biological Psychiatry 1996;40(7):617‐28. - PubMed
Magura 1994 {published data only}
    1. Magura S, Rosenblum A, Lovejoy M, Handelsman L, Foote J, Stimmel B. Neurobehavioral treatment for cocaine‐using methadone patients: a preliminary report. Journal of Addictive Diseases 1994;13(4):143‐60. - PubMed
Marcus 2009 {published data only}
    1. Marcus MT, Schmitz J, Moeller G, Liehr P, Cron SG, Swank P, et al. Mindfulness‐based stress reduction in therapeutic community treatment: a stage 1 trial. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 2009;35(2):103‐8. - PubMed
Martino 2006 {published data only}
    1. Martino S, Carroll KM, Nich C, Rounsaville BJ. A randomized controlled pilot study of motivational interviewing for patients with psychotic and drug use disorders. Addiction 2006;101(10):1479‐92. - PubMed
McKay1997 {published data only}
    1. McKay JR, Alterman AI, Cacciola JS, O'Brien CP, Koppenhaver JM, Shepard DS. Continuing care for cocaine dependence comprehensive 2‐year outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1999;67(3):420‐7. - PubMed
    1. McKay JR, Alterman AI, Cacciola JS, Rutherford MJ, O'Brien CP, Koppenhaver J. Group counseling versus individualized relapse prevention aftercare following intensive outpatient treatmentfor cocaine dependence: initial results. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1997;65(5):778‐88. - PubMed
McKay 1998 {published data only}
    1. McKay JR, McLellan T, Alterman AI, Cacciola JS, Rutherford MJ, O'Brien CP. Predictors of participation in aftercare sessions and self‐help groups following completion of intensive outpatient treatment for substance abuse. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1998;59(2):152‐62. - PubMed
McKay 2004 {published data only}
    1. McKay JR, Lynch KG, Shepard DS, Ratichek S, Morrison R, Koppenhaver J, et al. The effectiveness of telephone‐based continuing care in the clinical management of alcohol and cocaine use disorders: 12‐month outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2004;72(6):967‐79. - PubMed
McKay 2005 {published data only}
    1. McKay JR, Lynch KG, Shepard DS, Pettinati HM. The effectiveness of telephone‐based continuing care for alcohol and cocaine dependence: 24‐month outcomes. Archives of General Psychiatry 2005;62(2):199‐207. - PubMed
McKay 2010 {published data only}
    1. McKay JR, Lynch KG, Coviello D, Morrison R, Cary MS, Skalina L, et al. Randomized trial of continuing care enhancements for cocaine‐dependent patients following initial engagement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2010;78(1):111‐20. - PMC - PubMed
McKay2013a {published data only}
    1. McKay JR, Horn HA, Lynch KG, Ivey M, Carry MS, Drapkin ML, et al. An adaptive approach for identifying cocaine dependent patients who benefit from extended continuing care. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2013;81(6):1063‐73. - PMC - PubMed
McKay 2013b {published data only}
    1. McKay JR, Horn D, Ivey M, Drapkin ML, Rennert L, Lynch KG. Enhanced continuing care provided in parallel to intensive outpatient treatment does not improve outcomes for patients with cocaine dependence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 2013;74(4):642‐51. - PMC - PubMed
    1. McKay JR, Horn DH, Lynch KG, Ivey M, Cary MS, Drapkin M, et al. Who benefits from extended continuing care for cocaine dependence?. Adaptive Behavior 2014;39(3):660‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Miller 1983 {published data only}
    1. Miller L, Griffith J. A comparison of bupropion, dextroamphetamine, and placebo in mixed‐substance abusers. Psychopharmacology 1983;80(3):199‐205. - PubMed
Monti 1997 {published data only}
    1. Monti PM, Rohsenow DJ, Michalec E, Martin RA, Abrams DB. Brief coping skills treatment for cocaine abuse: substance use outcomes at three months. Addiction 1997;99(12):1717‐28. - PubMed
    1. Rohsenow DJ, Monti PM, Martin RA, Michalec E, Abrams DB. Brief coping skills treatment for cocaine abuse: 12‐month substance use outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2000;68(3):515‐20. - PubMed
Mueser 2009 {published data only}
    1. Mueser KT, Glynn SM, Cather C, Zarate R, Fox L, Feldman J, et al. Family intervention for co‐occurring substance use and severe psychiatric disorders: Participant characteristics and correlates of initial engagement and more extended exposure in a randomized controlled trial. Addictive Behaviors 2009;34(10):867‐77. - PMC - PubMed
Norberg 2014 {published data only}
    1. Norberg MM, Hides L, Olivier J, Khawar L, McKetin R, Copeland J. Brief interventions to reduce ecstasy use: a multi‐site randomized controlled trial. Behavior Therapy 2014;45(6):745–59. - PubMed
Ollo 1996 {published data only}
    1. Ollo C, Alim TN, Rosse RB, Lindquist T, Green T, Gillis T, et al. Lack of neurotoxic effect of diethylpropion in crack‐cocaine abusers. Clinical Neuropharmacology 1996;19(1):52‐8. - PubMed
Petry 2010 {published data only}
    1. Petry NM, Weinstock J, Alessi SM, Lewis MW, Dieckhaus K. Group‐based randomized trial of contingencies for health and abstinence in HIV patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2010;78(1):89‐97. - PMC - PubMed
Petry 2011 {published data only}
    1. Petry NM, Weinstock J, Alessi SM. A randomized trial of contingency management delivered in the context of group counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2011;79(5):686‐96. - PMC - PubMed
Polcin 2014 {published data only}
    1. Polcin DL, Bond J, Korcha R, Nayak MB, Galloway GP, Evans K. Randomized trial of intensive motivational interviewing for methamphetamine dependence. Journal of Addictive Diseases 2014;33(33):253‐65. - PMC - PubMed
Preston 2008 {published data only}
    1. Preston KL, Ghitza UE, Schmittner JP, Schroeder JR, Epstein DH. Randomized trial comparing two treatment strategies using prize‐based reinforcement of abstinence in cocaine and opiate users. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2008;41(4):551‐63. - PMC - PubMed
Rash 2008 {published data only}
    1. Rash CJ, Alessi SM, Petry NM. Contingency management is efficacious for cocaine abusers with prior treatment attempts. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2008;16(6):547‐54. - PMC - PubMed
Rogers 2008 {published data only}
    1. Rogers RE, Higgins ST, Silverman K, Thomas CS, Badger GJ, Bigelow G, et al. Abstinence‐contingent reinforcement and engagement in non‐drug‐related activities among illicit drug abusers. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 2008;22(4):544‐50. - PMC - PubMed
Rosen 2009 {published data only}
    1. Rosen MI, Carroll KM, Stefanovics E, Rosenheck RA. A randomized controlled trial of a money management‐based substance use intervention. Psychiatric Services 2009;60(4):498‐504. - PMC - PubMed
Rosenblum 2005 {published data only}
    1. Rosenblum A, Magura S, Kayman DJ, Fong C. Motivationally enhanced group counselling for substance users in a soup kitchen: a randomised clinical trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2005;80(1):91‐103. - PubMed
Ruger 2012 {published data only}
    1. Ruger JP, Abdallah AB, Luekens C, Cottler L. Cost‐effectiveness of peer‐delivered interventions for cocaine and alcohol abuse among women: a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 2012;7(3):e33594. - PMC - PubMed
Santisteban 2011 {published data only}
    1. Santisteban DA, Mena MP, McCabe BE. Preliminary results for an adaptive family treatment for drug abuse in Hispanic youth. Journal of Family Psychology 2011;25(4):610‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Saxon 1996 {published data only}
    1. Saxon AJ, Wells EA, Fleming C, Jackson TR, Calsyn DA. pre‐treatment characteristics, program philosophy and level of ancillary services as predictors of methadone maintenance treatment outcome. Addiction 1996;91(8):1197‐209. - PubMed
Schmitz 1997 {published data only}
    1. Schmitz JM, Oswald LM, Jacks SD, Rustin T, Rhoades HM, Grabowski J. Relapse prevention treatment for cocaine dependence: group vs individual format. Addictive Behaviors 1997;22(3):405‐18. - PubMed
Silverman 2001 {published data only}
    1. Silverman K, Svikis D, Robles E, Stitzer ML, Bigelow GE. A reinforcement‐based therapeutic workplace for the treatment of drug abuse. Six‐month abstinence outcomes. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2001;9(1):14‐23. - PubMed
Stitzer 2010 {published data only}
    1. Stitzer ML, Polk T, Bowles S, Kosten T. Drug users' adherence to a 6‐month vaccination protocol: effects of motivational incentives. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2010;107(1):76‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Van Horn 2011 {published data only}
    1. Horn DH, Drapkin M, Ivey M, Thomas T, Domis SW, Abdalla O, et al. Voucher incentives increase treatment participation in telephone‐based continuing care for cocaine dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2011;114(2‐3):225‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Wechsberg 2007 {published data only}
    1. Wechsberg WM, Zule WA, Riehman KS, Luseno WK, Lam WK. African‐American crack abusers and drug treatment initiation: barriers and effects of a pretreatment intervention. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy 2007;2:10. - PMC - PubMed
Weddington 1991 {published data only}
    1. Weddington WW, Brown BS, Haertzen CA, Hess JM, Mahaffey JR, Kolar AF, et al. Comparison of amantadine and desipramine combined with psychotherapy for treatment of cocaine dependence. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 1991;17(2):137‐52. - PubMed
Weinstein 1997 {published data only}
    1. Weinstein SP, Gottheil E, Sterling RC. Randomized comparison of intensive outpatient vs. individual therapy for cocaine abusers. Journal of Addictive Diseases 1997;16(2):41‐56. - PubMed
Weiss 2007 {published data only}
    1. Weiss RD, Griffin ML, Kolodziej ME, Greenfield SF, Najavits LM, Daley DC, et al. A randomized trial of integrated group therapy versus group drug counseling for patients with bipolar disorder and substance dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry 2007;164(1):100‐7. - PubMed
Winters 2000 {published data only}
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Zlotnick 2009 {published data only}
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References to studies awaiting assessment

NCT00292110 {published data only}
    1. NCT00292110. Treatment of heroin and cocaine with methadone maintenance and contingency management. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00292110 8 March 2016.

References to ongoing studies

IRCT2015091424012N1 {published data only}
    1. IRCT2015091424012N1. The effects of cognitive‐behavioral therapy on methamphetamine use among women in methadone treatment in Tehran. en.search.irct.ir/view/25615 8 March 2016.
NCT01401270 {published data only}
    1. NCT01401270. Prize contingency management for cocaine‐dependent methadone patients. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01401270 8 March 2016.
NCT01815645 {published data only}
    1. NCT01815645. Contingency management treatment for crack addiction ‐ study with brazilian population. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01401270NCT01815645 8 March 2015.
NCT01899313 {published data only}
    1. NCT01899313. A cognitive behavioral therapy‐based text message intervention for methamphetamine dependence. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01899313 8 March 2016.
NCT01926184 {published data only}
    1. NCT01926184. RCT of an integrative intervention for non‐treatment‐seeking meth users. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01926184 8 March 2016.
NCT01986075 {published data only}
    1. NCT01986075. A sequenced behavioral and medication intervention for cocaine dependence. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01986075 9 November 2015.
Shaub 2015 {published data only}
    1. Schaub MP, Maier L, Wenger A, Stark L, Berg O, Beck T, et al. Evaluating the efficacy of a web‐based self‐help intervention with and without chat counselling in reducing the cocaine use of problematic cocaine users: the study protocol of a pragmatic three‐arm randomised controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry 2015;15:156. [ISRCTN12205466] - PMC - PubMed

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