Regional asynchronicity in dairy production and processing in early farming communities of the northern Mediterranean

Abstract

In the absence of any direct evidence, the relative importance of meat and dairy productions to Neolithic prehistoric Mediterranean communities has been extensively debated. Here, we combine lipid residue analysis of ceramic vessels with osteo-archaeological age-at-death analysis from 82 northern Mediterranean and Near Eastern sites dating from the seventh to fifth millennia BC to address this question. The findings show variable intensities in dairy and nondairy activities in the Mediterranean region with the slaughter profiles of domesticated ruminants mirroring the results of the organic residue analyses. The finding of milk residues in very early Neolithic pottery (seventh millennium BC) from both the east and west of the region contrasts with much lower intensities in sites of northern Greece, where pig bones are present in higher frequencies compared with other locations. In this region, the slaughter profiles of all domesticated ruminants suggest meat production predominated. Overall, it appears that milk or the by-products of milk was an important foodstuff, which may have contributed significantly to the spread of these cultural groups by providing a nourishing and sustainable product for early farming communities.

Keywords: Neolithic; archaeology; archaeozoology; lipid residue analyses; milk.

Fig. 1.

Map of the Mediterranean basin showing the location of the sites in which organic residue analysis and archaeozoological studies were carried out, including data from the present study and published literature. The ceramic vessels and faunal remains tested date to the seventh to fifth millennium BC. The map highlights the geographical evidence of dairying during this time. 1: Shiqmin; 2: Al-Basatîn; 3: Sha'ar Hagolan; 4: Aswad; 5: El Kown 2 (lower levels); 6: Qdeir; 7: Umm el Tlell; 8: Seker (PN); 9: Sotto; 10: Çayönü Tepesi; 11: Tell Sabi Abyad; 12: Akarçay Tepe; 13: Halula 25; 14: Halula 26; 15: Mezraa Teleitat; 16: Domuz Tepe; 17: Tepecik Çiftlik; 18: Shillourokambos; 19: Çatalhöyük; 20: Erbaba Höyük; 21: Suberde; 22: Hoyucek; 23: Knossos; 24: Ftelia; 25: Lerna; 26: Kalythies Cave; 27: Ulucak Höyük; 28: Barcın Höyük; 29: Hoca Çesme; 30: Yarimburgaz; 31: Toptepe; 32: Pendik; 33: Fikir Tepe; 34: Aşagi Pinar; 35: Makri; 36: Sitagroi; 37: Stavroupoli; 38: Paliambela; 39: Makriyalos; 40: Prodromos; 41: Dispilio; 42: Ritini; 43: Toumba Kremastis Koiladas; 44: Apsalos; 45: Nakovana Cave; 46: Pupincina; 47: Mala Triglavca; 48: caves of Trieste Karst (Edera, Mitero, Zingari); 49: Masseria La Quercia; 50: Canne-Sette Ponti; 51: Palata 1; 52: Trani-Seconda Spiaggia di Colonna; 53: Fondo Azzollini, Pulo di Molfetta; 54: Serri-San Gabriele, Bari San Paolo; 55: Masseria Maselli; 56: Balsignano; 57: Ciccotto; 58: Trasano; 59: Torre Sabea; 60: Grotta San Michele; 61: Favella della Corte, Corigliano Calabro; 62: Skorba; 63: Colle Santo Stefano; 64: La Marmotta; 65: Araguina-Sennola; 66: Arene Candide; 67: Grotte Lombard; 68: Baume de Fontbrégoua; 69: Abri II du Fraischamp; 70: Abri de Saint-Mitre; 71: Barret de Lioure; 72: Combe Obscure; 73: Baume d'Oullen; 74: Pont de Roque-Haute; 75: Grotte Gazel; 76: Font-Juvénal; 77: Abri Jean Cros; 78: Can Sadurní; 79: La Draga; 80: Cova de Chaves II; 81: Caserna de Sant Pau; 82: Cova de la Sarsa; 83: Los Castillejos; 84: Cueva de Nerja. Dating of the sites can be found in Table S6.

Fig. 2.

Δ¹³C values for archaeological animal fat residues in Neolithic pottery from: (A) The Levant (9, 19, 21), three sites; (B) central and eastern Anatolia (9), eight sites; (C) northwestern Anatolia (around the sea of Marmara) (9), seven sites; (D) northern Greece (this study and ref. 9), six sites; (E) Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, and Malta (this study and ref. 18), eight sites; and (F) southwestern France and Spain (this study), three sites. The ranges shown here represent the mean ±1 SD of the Δ¹³C values for a global database comprising modern reference animal fats (24).

Fig. 3.

F₁ × F₂ biplot CA for cattle, based on (A) the minimum number of individuals (MNI) and 15 contexts; and (B) the number (Nd) of dental fragments and 9 contexts; and sheep/goats based on (C) MNI and 20 contexts and (D) Nd and 45 contexts, respectively. CA plots were constructed using dental fragments analyses for 43 sites from Anatolia (PN sites, green); Near East (PN sites from Syria and Iraq, dark blue); Greece [Early Neolithic (EN)–Late Neolithic (LN), eighth to sixth millennium BC, dark gray]; Italy and Croatia (Impressa, EN, seventh to sixth millennium BC, yellow); southwestern France and Spain (Cardial, EN, seventh to sixth millennium BC, light blue), Open circles: cave and rock shelter sites; closed circles: open air and tell sites. The triangles represent the age classes, and their size reflects the influence on the data. For caprines: age class A: 0–2 mo; B: 2–6 mo; C: 6–12 mo; D: 1–2 y; EF: 2–4 y; G: 4–6 y; HI: + 6 y. Sites that are positioned close or between infant/juvenile age classes (cattle: 0–12 mo; caprines: 0–6 mo) and mature adults (4+ y) could be an indication that dairy husbandry was practiced. Numeration for the sites as in Fig. 1.

Fig. 4.

Bar charts for the presence (white) and absence (dark gray) of dairying for: (A) site types (ANOVA, df = 3, F = 5.09, P < 0.001); (B) cultural groups (with ICW, Impressa/Cardial ware; PNG, Pottery Neolithic Greece; PNM, Pottery Neolithic Marmara; PNA, Pottery Neolithic Anatolia; PNL, Pottery Neolithic Levant; ANOVA, df = 5, F = 5.64, P < 0.001); (C) climate types [abbreviations according to Köppen-Geiger climate types (49); ANOVA, df = 6, F = 2.1, P = 0.05]; and (D) regions (ANOVA, df = 6; F = 6.69, P < 0.001. See Tables S4 and S5 for complete dataset.