A conceptual framework for understanding illegal killing of large carnivores

Abstract

The growing complexity and global nature of wildlife poaching threaten the survival of many species worldwide and are outpacing conservation efforts. Here, we reviewed proximal and distal factors, both social and ecological, driving illegal killing or poaching of large carnivores at sites where it can potentially occur. Through this review, we developed a conceptual social-ecological system framework that ties together many of the factors influencing large carnivore poaching. Unlike most conservation action models, an important attribute of our framework is the integration of multiple factors related to both human motivations and animal vulnerability into feedbacks. We apply our framework to two case studies, tigers in Laos and wolverines in northern Sweden, to demonstrate its utility in disentangling some of the complex features of carnivore poaching that may have hindered effective responses to the current poaching crisis. Our framework offers a common platform to help guide future research on wildlife poaching feedbacks, which has hitherto been lacking, in order to effectively inform policy making and enforcement.

Keywords: Carnivores; Feedbacks; Gulo gulo; Panthera tigris; Poaching; Social–ecological systems.

Fig. 1

Social–ecological system framework for carnivore poaching. Human–carnivore interactions span different levels, indicated by overlapping circles. The area within the dashed circle indicates the co-occurrence of would-be poachers (or their tools such as traps) and vulnerable animals in space and time. Co-occurrence is influenced by guardianship factors, such as road closures, fences, and anti-poaching units, among many other related factors. Factors listed in each level are frequently shown to influence poaching dynamics; however, other factors not listed here might also relate to illegal killing of carnivores or other wildlife species

Fig. 2

Social–ecological system diagram illustrating how various social and ecological factors, their interactions, and feedbacks compromised the effectiveness of an intervention designed to reduce tiger poaching in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area, Laos. Dashed lines indicate key interactions across the social and ecological subsystems that form feedbacks

Fig. 3

Social–ecological system diagram illustrating how various social and ecological factors, their interactions, and feedbacks enhanced the effectiveness of an intervention designed to protect human livelihoods and increase wolverine numbers in northern Sweden. Dashed lines indicate key interactions across the social and ecological subsystems that form feedbacks. RH reindeer herders, RHD reindeer herding district