Perioperative management of the bleeding patient

Abstract

Perioperative bleeding remains a major complication during and after surgery, resulting in increased morbidity and mortality. The principal causes of non-vascular sources of haemostatic perioperative bleeding are a preexisting undetected bleeding disorder, the nature of the operation itself, or acquired coagulation abnormalities secondary to haemorrhage, haemodilution, or haemostatic factor consumption. In the bleeding patient, standard therapeutic approaches include allogeneic blood product administration, concomitant pharmacologic agents, and increasing application of purified and recombinant haemostatic factors. Multiple haemostatic changes occur perioperatively after trauma and complex surgical procedures including cardiac surgery and liver transplantation. Novel strategies for both prophylaxis and therapy of perioperative bleeding include tranexamic acid, desmopressin, fibrinogen and prothrombin complex concentrates. Point-of-care patient testing using thromboelastography, rotational thromboelastometry, and platelet function assays has allowed for more detailed assessment of specific targeted therapy for haemostasis. Strategic multimodal management is needed to improve management, reduce allogeneic blood product administration, and minimize associated risks related to transfusion.

Keywords: coagulopathy; direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs); hemostasis & thrombosis; point-of-care testing; thromboembolism; transfusion algorithm.

Fig 1

Interplay between coagulation, anticoagulation, and the fibrinolytic systems. In a simplified model, coagulation factors are illustrated upon the activated platelet surface. Through the activation of factor X (Xa) via intrinsic (Factor IXa, VIIIa) and extrinsic tenase (Xase) complexes, factors Xa and Va convert factor II (prothrombin) to factor IIa (thrombin). Thrombin then cleaves fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrin polymerization is facilitated by the activation of factor XIII that forms cross links leading to clot stabilization. Factor II, VII (not pictured), IX (not pictured) and X are targeted for repletion with prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) administration. Factor VIIa is targeted for repletion with administration of recombinant factor VIIa (rFVIIa). Simultaneously, anticoagulants negatively modulate clot formation. Antithrombin III (ATIII) modulates factor IIa (primarily) and factor Xa (secondarily), but ATIII-dependent inhibition of factor IXa, XIa, and VIIa-TF complex occurs to a lesser extent (not pictured). Other important anticoagulants include TFPI-modulation of Tissue Factor and factor VIIa, and Activated Protein C (APC) which, through activation of protein S, inhibits factor Va, weakening the prothrombinase complex and impairing thrombin generation. Upstream, APC inhibits factor VIIIa of the intrinsic Xase complex. Factor IIa complexes with Thrombomodulin (TM) to activate PC. Of note, the thrombin-TM/PC/PS system is primarily localized to the endothelium but can be expressed on platelets and monocytes. This complex initiates thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI), which prevents plasmin production by inhibiting tissue-plasminogen activator and through direct inhibition of plasminogen (not pictured). Plasmin is a serine protease and, as the primary driver of fibrinolysis, results in clot destabilization, degradation of fibrin cross linkage, and production of fibrin degradation products, which include D-dimers. Plasmin triggers platelet activation (not pictured) thereby competing with TAFI at the local level. TF, Tissue Factor; PC, Protein C; PS, Protein S; TFPI(a), Tissue-Factor Pathway Inhibitor (activated); ATIII, Antithrombin III; FGN, Fibrinogen; TM, Thrombomodulin; FDPs, Fibrin Degradation Products; tPA, tissue-Plasminogen Activator.

Fig 2

Transfusion algorithm for intraoperative bleeding during noncardiac surgery. Focus on a laboratory-based, viscoelastic testing paradigm, with opportunities for intervention based on clinical decision-making. Our protocol advocates antifibrinolytic therapy, correction of acidosis, and correction of acute hypocalcaemia. Inside the redbox, our balanced ratio recommendations are presented if the patient has been transfused four units of blood and intraoperative haemorrhage is ongoing. Consideration is given to low-dose factor concentrate usage (PCCs, rFVIIa) if bleeding is refractory to balanced resuscitation and algorithmic options. Figure modified from a draft version of our local massive transfusion protocol. CBC, complete blood count; Cryo, cryoprecipitate; FFP, fresh frozen plasma; Hgb, haemoglobin; RBC, red blood cell; PLT, platelet count; T & S, type and screen; PCC, prothrombin complex concentrates.

Fig 3

Transfusion Algorithm for intraoperative bleeding during cardiac surgery. In this laboratory, viscoelastic testing (ROTEM©) paradigm, samples are sent upon body temperature rewarming during CPB. Our algorithm directs the correction of hypofibrinogenaemia (using the Klaus Fibrinogen assay or FibTEM© A10 values and thrombocytopenia. Patients whom have undergone hypothermic circulatory arrest and the ensuing platelet dysfunction of hypothermia, receive platelet concentrate transfusion depending on platelet value during on-CPB rewarming values, when temperatures are >33 °C. Notably, because of established institutional practices, a first set of haemostasis blood samples are sent to the laboratory on CPB, and in order to account for heparin effect, HEPTEM© is sent in addition to EXTEM©. Thus, if HEPTEM© is >240 s, then it is presumed the added prolonged clotting time is as a result of additional factor deficiencies and requires FFP administration. A HEPTEM© CT <240 s indicates manufacture-established values after heparin antagonism. This value aids the practitioner in deciding on FFP administration while on CPB, in order to avoid delayed initiation of coagulation management after separation from CPB. Consideration is also made to post-CPB PCC administration, as PCC usage on CPB might be less useful owing to the larger volume of distribution and potential deposition of PCC factors onto CPB filters. With opportunities for clinical observation and laboratory values for deciding further clinical intervention, various deficiencies are managed through such blood, plasma, and factor concentrate administration. Antifibrinolytic therapy is standard practice for our cardiac surgical patients that require CPB. Notably, we have internally tested our 5U-pack of cryoprecipitate and have found fibrinogen concentration to range between 1.5-2.5 grams. We recommend a similar assessment locally within each hospital to help with best practice. Figure modified from a draft version of our local cardiac surgery transfusion protocol. AT III = Antithrombin III; CT = Clotting time; CPB = cardiopulmonary bypass; Cryo = Cryoprecipitate; FFP = fresh frozen plasma; FIB = Fibrinogen concentration; Hb = Haemoglobin; PCCs = Prothrombin complex concentrate; PLT = platelet count; RBC = Red blood cell; rFVIIa = Recombinant activated factor VIIa; U = unit.