The database of the PREDICTS (Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems) project

Abstract

The PREDICTS project-Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems (www.predicts.org.uk)-has collated from published studies a large, reasonably representative database of comparable samples of biodiversity from multiple sites that differ in the nature or intensity of human impacts relating to land use. We have used this evidence base to develop global and regional statistical models of how local biodiversity responds to these measures. We describe and make freely available this 2016 release of the database, containing more than 3.2 million records sampled at over 26,000 locations and representing over 47,000 species. We outline how the database can help in answering a range of questions in ecology and conservation biology. To our knowledge, this is the largest and most geographically and taxonomically representative database of spatial comparisons of biodiversity that has been collated to date; it will be useful to researchers and international efforts wishing to model and understand the global status of biodiversity.

Keywords: data sharing; global biodiversity modeling; global change; habitat destruction; land use.

Figure 1

Sampling locations. Map colors indicate biomes, taken from the Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World dataset (The Nature Conservancy, 2009), shown in a geographic (WGS84) projection. Circle radii are proportional to log₁₀ of the number of samples at that Site. All circles have the same degree of partial transparency. Sites added to the database since Hudson et al. (2014) are shown in pink

Figure 2

Coverage of biomes. The percentage of Studies (a and b), Sites (c and d), and samples (e and f) against percentages of terrestrial NPP (Net Primary Productivity, computed as in Hudson et al., 2014; a, c, and e) and terrestrial area (b, d, and f). Biome codes and colors are as in Figure 1

Figure 3

Numbers of Sites against the areas of biodiversity hotspots and of high biodiversity wilderness areas (HBWAs). Hotspots are shown by circles and HBWAs by squares; symbols are colored by the predominant biogeographic realm in which they fall. Hotspots are 1 California Floristic Province, 2 Madrean Pine‐Oak Woodlands, 3 Atlantic Forest, 4 Caribbean Islands, 5 Cerrado, 6 Chilean Winter Rainfall and Valdivian Forests, 7 Mesoamerica, 8 Tropical Andes, 9 Tumbes‐Choco‐Magdalena, 10 Irano‐Anatolian, 11 Japan, 12 Mediterranean Basin, 13 Mountains of Central Asia, 14 Mountains of Southwest China, 15 Cape Floristic Region, 16 Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, 17 Eastern Afromontane, 18 Guinean Forests of West Africa, 19 Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands, 20 Maputaland‐Pondoland‐Albany, 21 Succulent Karoo, 22 Himalaya, 23 Indo‐Burma, 24 Philippines, 25 Sundaland, 26 Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, 27 East Melanesian Islands, 28 Forests of East Australia, 29 New Zealand, 30 Southwest Australia, 31 Wallacea, 32 Polynesia‐Micronesia and HBWAs are 33 Amazonia, 34 Congo Forests, 35 New Guinea, 36 North American Deserts. Unrepresented are the hotspots Caucasus, Horn of Africa, New Caledonia and the HBWA Miombo‐Mopane Woodlands and Savannas

Figure 4

Taxonomic coverage. The numbers of species in our database against the numbers of described species within each of 59 higher taxa, as estimated by Chapman (2009), on logarithmic axes. Vertebrates are shown in red, arthropods in pink, other animals in gray, plants in green, and fungi in blue. The dashed, solid, and dotted lines indicate 10, 1, and 0.1% representation, respectively. Groups with just a single species represented (Diplura and Zoraptera) are not shown

Figure 5

Number of Studies by lowest common taxonomic group. Bars show the number of Studies within each lowest common taxon (so, one Study examined the species Swietenia macrophylla, three Studies examined the species Bombus pascuorum, ten Studies examined multiple species within the genus Bombus, and so on). Colors are as in Figure 4. Numbers on the right are the primary references from which data were taken: 1 Basset et al. (2008), 2 Buscardo et al. (2008), 3 Christensen and Heilmann‐Clausen (2009), 4 Domínguez, Bahamonde, and Muñoz‐Escobar (2012), 5 López‐Quintero, Straatsma, Franco‐Molano, and Boekhout (2012), 6 Nöske et al. (2008), 7 Norton, Espie, Murray, and Murray (2006), 8 Peri, Lencinas, Martínez Pastur, Wardell‐Johnson, and Lasagno (2013), 9 Robinson and Williams (2011), 10 Barratt et al. (2005), 11 Bonham, Mesibov, and Bashford (2002), 12 Boutin, Martin, and Baril (2009), 13 Carpenter et al. (2012), 14 Gaigher and Samways (2010), 15 Ge et al. (2012), 16 Hayward (2009), 17 Leighton‐Goodall, Brown, Hammond, and Eggleton (2012), 18 Muchane et al. (2012), 19 Ngai et al. (2008), 20 Richardson, Richardson, and Soto‐Adames (2005), 21 Schon, Mackay, Minor, Yeates, and Hedley (2008), 22 Schon, Mackay, Yeates, and Minor (2010), 23 Schon, Mackay, and Minor (2011), 24 Smith (2006), 25 Smith, Potts, Woodcock, and Eggleton (2008), 26 Smith, Potts, and Eggleton (2008), 27 Todd et al. (2011), 28 Vasconcelos et al. (2009), 29 Walker, Wilson, Norbury, Monks, and Tanentzap (2014), 30 Baeten, Velghe, et al. (2010), 31 Bakayoko, Martin, Chatelain, Traore, and Gautier (2011), 32 Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (2013a), 33 Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (2013b), 34 Dumont et al. (2009), 35 Firincioglu, Seefeldt, Sahin, and Vural (2009), 36 Haarmeyer, Schmiedel, Dengler, and Bosing (2010), 37 Joubert, Esler, and Privett (2009), 38 Norfolk, Eichhorn, and Gilbert (2013), 39 Page, Qureshi, Rawat, and Kushalappa (2010), 40 Proença, Pereira, Guilherme, and Vicente (2010), 41 Sheil et al. (2002), 42 Wang, Lencinas, Ross Friedman, Wang, and Qiu (2011), 43 Alignier and Deconchat (2013), 44 Baeten, Hermy, Van Daele, and Verheyen (2010), 45 Barlow, Gardner, et al. (2007), 46 Barrico et al. (2012), 47 Baur et al. (2006), 48 Berry et al. (2010), 49 Boutin, Baril, and Martin (2008), 50 Bouyer et al. (2007), 51 Brearley (2011), 52 Brunet et al. (2011), 53 Calviño‐Cancela, Rubido‐Bará, and van Etten (2012), 54 Castro, Lehsten, Lavorel, and Freitas (2010), 55 de Lima, Dallimer, Atkinson, and Barlow (2013), 56 Devineau, Fournier, and Nignan (2009), 57 Fensham, Dwyer, Eyre, Fairfax, and Wang (2012), 58 Fernandez and Simonetti (2013), 59 Fredriksson, Danielsen, and Swenson (2007), 60 Gendreau‐Berthiaume, Kneeshaw, and Harvey (2012), 61 Golodets, Kigel, and Sternberg (2010), 62 Grass, Berens, Peter, and Farwig (2013), 63 Gutierrez et al. (2009), 64 Helden and Leather (2004), 65 Hernández, Delgado, Meier, and Duran (2012), 66 Hietz (2005), 67 Higuera and Wolf (2010), 68 Hylander and Nemomissa (2009), 69 Ishida, Hattori, and Takeda (2005), 70 Kati, Zografou, Tzirkalli, Chitos, and Willemse (2012), 71 Katovai, Burley, and Mayfield (2012), 72 Kessler et al. (2005), 73 Kessler et al. (2009), 74 Kolb and Diekmann (2004), 75 Krauss, Klein, Steffan‐Dewenter, and Tscharntke (2004), 76 Krauss et al. (2010), 77 Kumar and Shahabuddin (2005), 78 Letcher and Chazdon (2009), 79 Louhaichi, Salkini, and Petersen (2009), 80 Lucas‐Borja et al. (2011), 81 Måren (2011), 82 Måren, Bhattarai, and Chaudhary (2013), 83 Marin‐Spiotta, Ostertag, and Silver (2007), 84 Mayfield, Ackerly, and Daily (2006), 85 McNamara, Erskine, Lamb, Chantalangsy, and Boyle (2012), 86 Milder et al. (2010), 87 O'Connor (2005), 88 Paritsis and Aizen (2008), 89 Phalan, Onial, Balmford, and Green (2011), 90 Pincheira‐Ulbrich, Rau, and Smith‐Ramirez (2012), 91 Poggio, Chaneton, and Ghersa (2013), 92 Power and Stout (2011), 93 Power, Kelly, and Stout (2012), 94 Ramesh et al. (2010), 95 Romero‐Duque, Jaramillo, and Perez‐Jimenez (2007), 96 Schmitt, Senbeta, Denich, Preisinger, and Boehmer (2010), 97 Shannon et al. (2008), 98 Siebert (2011), 99 Vassilev, Pedashenko, Nikolov, Apostolova, and Dengler (2011), 100 Williams, Sheahan, and Gormally (2009), 101 Yamaura et al. (2012), 102 Alcala, Alcala, and Dolino (2004), 103 Bicknell and Peres (2010), 104 Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) (2010); Deheuvels, Avelino, Somarriba, and Malézieux (2012), Deheuvels et al. (2014); Rousseau, Deheuvels, Rodriguez Arias, and Somarriba (2012), 105 Craig et al. (2009), 106 Craig et al. (2012), 107 Craig, Grigg, Hobbs, and Hardy (2014), 108 Craig, Stokes, StJ. Hardy, and Hobbs (2015), 109 de Thoisy et al. (2010), 110 Endo et al. (2010), 111 Garden, McAlpine, and Possingham (2010), 112 Kurz, Nowakowski, Tingley, Donnelly, and Wilcove (2014), 113 Kutt and Woinarski (2007), 114 Kutt, Vanderduys, and O'Reagain (2012), 115 Lehouck et al. (2009), 116 Macip‐Ríos and Muñoz‐Alonso (2008), 117 McCarthy, McCarthy, Fuller, and McCarthy (2010), 118 Parry, Barlow, and Peres (2009), 119 Peres and Nascimento (2006), 120 St‐Laurent, Ferron, Hins, and Gagnon (2007), 121 Sung, Karraker, and Hau (2012), 122 Urbina‐Cardona, Olivares‐Perez, and Reynoso (2006), 123 Woinarski and Ash (2002), 124 Woinarski et al. (2009), 125 Billeter et al. (2008); Le Féon et al. (2010), 126 Borges et al. (2006), 127 Cabra‐García, Bermúdez‐Rivas, Osorio, and Chacón (2012), 128 Hanley (2011), 129 Lachat et al. (2006), 130 Cardoso et al. (2009); Meijer, Whittaker, and Borges (2011), 131 Nakamura, Proctor, and Catterall (2003), 132 Norfolk, Abdel‐Dayem, and Gilbert (2012), 133 Poveda, Martinez, Kersch‐Becker, Bonilla, and Tscharntke (2012), 134 Rousseau, Fonte, Tellez, van der Hoek, and Lavelle (2013), 135 Turner and Foster (2009), 136 Uehara‐Prado et al. (2009), 137 Waite (2012); Waite, Closs, Van Heezik, Berry, and Dickinson (2012), 138 Woodcock et al. (2007), 139 Albertos, Lara, Garilleti, and Mazimpaka (2005), 140 Draper, Lara, Albertos, Garilleti, and Mazimpaka (2006), 141 Giordano et al. (2004), 142 Hylander and Weibull (2012), 143 Medina et al. (2010), 144 Hu and Cao (2008), 145 Wu, Fu, Chen, and Chen (2002), 146 Zhang, Li, and Liang (2010), 147 Giordani et al. (2010), 148 Giordani (2012), 149 Aben, Dorenbosch, Herzog, Smolders, and Van Der Velde (2008), 150 Arbeláez‐Cortés, Rodríguez‐Correa, and Restrepo‐Chica (2011), 151 Aumann (2001), 152 Azhar et al. (2013), 153 Azman et al. (2011), 154 Azpiroz and Blake (2009), 155 Báldi, Batáry, and Erdos (2005), 156 Barlow, Mestre, Gardner, and Peres (2007), 157 Bóçon (2010), 158 Borges (2007), 159 Brandt et al. (2013), 160 Cerezo, Conde, and Poggio (2011), 161 Chapman and Reich (2007), 162 Cockle, Leonard, and Bodrati (2005), 163 Dallimer, Parnell, Bicknell, and Melo (2012), 164 Dawson et al. (2011), 165 Dures and Cumming (2010), 166 Edenius, Mikusinski, and Bergh (2011), 167 Farwig, Sajita, and Boehning‐Gaese (2008), 168 Flaspohler et al. (2010), 169 Gomes, Oostra, Nijman, Cleef, and Kappelle (2008); Oostra, Gomes, and Nijman (2008), 170 Hassan et al. (2013), 171 Ims and Henden (2012), 172 Lantschner, Rusch, and Peyrou (2008), 173 Lasky and Keitt (2010), 174 Latta, Tinoco, Astudillo, and Graham (2011), 175 Mallari et al. (2011), 176 Doulton, Marsh, Newman, Bird, and Bell (2007), 177 Marsh, Lewis, Said, and Ewers (2010), 178 Miranda, Politi, and Rivera (2010), 179 Moreno‐Mateos et al. (2011), 180 Munyekenye, Mwangi, and Gichuki (2008), 181 Naidoo (2004), 182 Naithani and Bhatt (2012), 183 Naoe, Sakai, and Masaki (2012), 184 Ndang'ang'a, Njoroge, and Githiru (2013), 185 Neuschulz, Botzat, and Farwig (2011), 186 O'Dea and Whittaker (2007), 187 Owiunji and Plumptre (1998), 188 Pearman (2002), 189 Politi, Hunter Jr. and Rivera (2012), 190 Pons and Wendenburg (2005), 191 Ranganathan, Chan, and Daily (2007), 192 Ranganathan, Daniels, Chandran, Ehrlich, and Daily (2008), 193 Reid, Harris, and Zahawi (2012), 194 Rey‐Benayas, Galvan, and Carrascal (2010), 195 Reynolds and Symes (2013), 196 Rosselli (2011), 197 Sam, Koane, Jeppy, and Novotny (2014), 198 Santana, Porto, Gordinho, Reino, and Beja (2012), 199 Shahabuddin and Kumar (2006, 2007), 200 Sheldon, Styring, and Hosner (2010), 201 Sodhi et al. (2010), 202 Soh, Sodhi, and Lim (2006), 203 Sosa, Benz, Galea, and Poggio Herrero (2010), 204 Stouffer, Johnson, Bierregaard, Richard, and Lovejoy (2011), 205 Suarez‐Rubio and Thomlinson (2009), 206 Vergara and Simonetti (2004), 207 Verhulst, Báldi, and Kleijn (2004), 208 Waite, Closs, van Heezik, and Dickinson (2013), 209 Wang, Bao, Yu, Xu, and Ding (2010), 210 Wunderle, Henriques, and Willig (2006), 211 Li, Zou, Zhang, and Sheldon (2013), 212 Bates et al. (2011), 213 Blake, Westbury, Woodcock, Sutton, and Potts (2011), 214 Blanche, Ludwig, and Cunningham (2006), 215 Cleary et al. (2004), 216 Farwig et al. (2009), 217 Franzén and Nilsson (2008), 218 Kohler, Verhulst, van Klink, and Kleijn (2008), 219 Litchwark (2013), 220 Meyer, Gaebele, and Steffan‐Dewenter (2007), 221 Jauker, Krauss, Jauker, and Steffan‐Dewenter (2013); Meyer, Jauker, and Steffan‐Dewenter (2009), 222 Mudri‐Stojnic, Andric, Jozan, and Vujic (2012), 223 Quintero, Morales, and Aizen (2010), 224 Rader, Bartomeus, Tylianakis, and Laliberte (2014), 225 Schüepp, Herrmann, Herzog, and Schmidt‐Entling (2011), 226 Summerville (2011), 227 Vergara and Badano (2009), 228 Bernard, Fjeldsa, and Mohamed (2009), 229 Cáceres, Nápoli, Casella, and Hannibal (2010), 230 Cassano, Barlow, and Pardini (2014), 231 Danquah, Oppong, and Nutsuakor (2012), 232 Garmendia, Arroyo‐Rodriguez, Estrada, Naranjo, and Stoner (2013), 233 Gheler‐Costa, Vettorazzi, Pardini, and Verdade (2012), 234 Granjon and Duplantier (2011), 235 Henschel (2008), 236 Hoffmann and Zeller (2005), 237 Kittle, Watson, Chanaka Kumara, and Nimalka Sanjeewani (2012), 238 Lantschner, Rusch, and Hayes (2012), 239 Martin, Gheler‐Costa, Lopes, Rosalino, and Verdade (2012), 240 McShea et al. (2009), 241 Mena and Medellín (2010), 242 Nakagawa, Miguchi, and Nakashizuka (2006), 243 O'Farrell, Donaldson, Hoffman, and Mader (2008), 244 Scott et al. (2006), 245 Sridhar, Raman, and Mudappa (2008), 246 Wells, Kalko, Lakim, and Pfeiffer (2007), 247 Hylander, Nilsson, and Gothner (2004), 248 Kappes, Katzschner, and Nowak (2012), 249 Oke and Chokor (2009), 250 Oke (2013), 251 Schilthuizen, Liew, Bin Elahan, and Lackman‐Ancrenaz (2005), 252 Ström, Hylander, and Dynesius (2009), 253 Torre, Bros, and Santos (2014), 254 Wronski et al. (2014), 255 Freire and Motta (2011), 256 Lo‐Man‐Hung, Gardner, Ribeiro‐Júnior, Barlow, and Bonaldo (2008), 257 Shochat, Stefanov, Whitehouse, and Faeth (2004), 258 Zaitsev, Chauvat, Pug, and Wolters (2002), 259 Walker, Crittenden, Young, and Prystina (2006), 260 Malonza and Veith (2012), 261 Alguacil, Torrecillas, Hernandez, and Roldan (2012), 262 Brito, Goss, de Carvalho, Chatagnier, and van Tuinen (2012), 263 Baral and Katzensteiner (2009), 264 Robles, Carmaran, and Lopez (2011), 265 Römbke, Schmidt, and Höfer (2009), 266 Luja, Herrando‐Perez, Gonzalez‐Solis, and Luiselli (2008), 267 Cameron et al. (2011), 268 Cunningham, Schellhorn, Marcora, and Batley (2013), 269 Fowler (2014), 270 Gould et al. (2013), 271 Lentini, Martin, Gibbons, Fischer, and Cunningham (2012), 272 Malone et al. (2010), 273 Marshall, West, and Kleijn (2006), 274 Oertli, Muller, and Dorn (2005), 275 Osgathorpe, Park, and Goulson (2012), 276 Quaranta et al. (2004), 277 Richards et al. (2011), 278 Samnegård, Persson, and Smith (2011), 279 Schüepp, Rittiner, and Entling (2012), 280 Shuler, Roulston, and Farris (2005), 281 Smith‐Pardo and Gonzalez (2007), 282 Tonietto, Fant, Ascher, Ellis, and Larkin (2011), 283 Tylianakis, Klein, and Tscharntke (2005), 284 Verboven, Brys, and Hermy (2012), 285 Barlow, Overal, Araujo, Gardner, and Peres (2007), 286 Berg, Ahrné, Öckinger, Svensson, and Söderström (2011), 287 Bobo, Waltert, Fermon, Njokagbor, and Muhlenberg (2006), 288 Cleary and Mooers (2006), 289 D'Aniello, Stanislao, Bonelli, and Balletto (2011), 290 de Sassi, Lewis, and Tylianakis (2012), 291 Dolia, Devy, Aravind, and Kumar (2008), 292 Hawes et al. (2009), 293 Ishitani, Kotze, and Niemela (2003), 294 Krauss, Steffan‐Dewenter, and Tscharntke (2003), 295 Littlewood (2008), 296 Pe'er, Maanen, Turbe, Matsinos, and Kark (2011), 297 Safian, Csontos, and Winkler (2011), 298 Summerville and Crist (2002), 299 Summerville, Conoan, and Steichen (2006), 300 Sutrisno (2010), 301 Uehara‐Prado, Brown, Spalding, and Lucci Freitas (2007), 302 Verdasca et al. (2012), 303 Vu (2005), 304 Vu (2009), 305 Banks, Sandvik, and Keesecker (2007), 306 Barratt et al. (2012), 307 Blanche and Cunningham (2005), 308 Buse, Levanony, Timm, Dayan, and Assmann (2008), 309 Elek and Lovei (2007), 310 Ewers, Thorpe, and Didham (2007), 311 Gaublomme, Hendrickx, Dhuyvetter, and Desender (2008), 312 Gray, Slade, Mann, and Lewis (2014), 313 Jonsell (2012), 314 Légaré, Hébert, and Ruel (2011), 315 Mico, Garcia‐Lopez, Brustel, Padilla, and Galante (2013), 316 Noreika (2009), 317 Numa, Verdu, Rueda, and Galante (2012), 318 Nyeko (2009), 319 Otavo, Parrado‐Rosselli, and Noriega (2013), 320 Rodrigues, Uchoa, and Ide (2013), 321 Sugiura, Tsuru, Yamaura, and Makihara (2009), 322 Verdú et al. (2007), 323 Adum, Eichhorn, Oduro, Ofori‐Boateng, and Rodel (2013), 324 de Souza, de Souza, and Morato (2008), 325 Eigenbrod, Hecnar, and Fahrig (2008), 326 Faruk, Belabut, Ahmad, Knell, and Garner (2013), 327 Furlani, Ficetola, Colombo, Ugurlucan, and De Bernardi (2009), 328 Gutierrez‐Lamus (2004), 329 Hilje and Aide (2012), 330 Isaacs‐Cubides and Urbina‐Cardona (2011), 331 Ofori‐Boateng et al. (2013), 332 Pethiyagoda and Manamendra‐Arachchi (2012), 333 Pillsbury and Miller (2008), 334 Pineda and Halffter (2004), 335 Vallan (2002), 336 Watling, Gerow, and Donnelly (2009), 337 Castro‐Luna, Sosa, and Castillo‐Campos (2007), 338 Clarke, Rostant, and Racey (2005), 339 Fukuda, Tisen, Momose, and Sakai (2009), 340 MacSwiney, Vilchis, Clarke, and Racey (2007), 341 Presley, Willig, Wunderle, Joseph, and Saldanha (2008), 342 Sedlock et al. (2008), 343 Shafie, Sah, Latip, Azman, and Khairuddin (2011), 344 Struebig, Kingston, Zubaid, Mohd‐Adnan, and Rossiter (2008), 345 Threlfall, Law, and Banks (2012), 346Willig et al. (2007), 347 Alcayaga, Pizarro‐Araya, Alfaro, and Cepeda‐Pizarro (2013), 348 Buddle and Shorthouse (2008), 349 Clark, Gerard, and Mellsop (2004), 350 Kapoor (2008), 351 Lo‐Man‐Hung et al. (2011), 352 Magura, Horvath, and Tothmeresz (2010), 353 Malumbres‐Olarte et al. (2014), 354 Paradis and Work (2011), 355 Raub, Hoefer, Scheuermann, and Brandl (2014), 356 Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Institute (ABMI) (2013), 357 Arroyo, Iturrondobeitia, Rad, and Gonzalez‐Carcedo (2005), 358 Zaitsev, Wolters, Waldhardt, and Dauber (2006), 359 Kőrösi, Batáry, Orosz, Rédei, and Báldi (2012), 360 Littlewood, Pakeman, and Pozsgai (2012), 361 Moir, Brennan, Koch, Majer, and Fletcher (2005), 362 Carrijo, Brandao, de Oliveira, Costa, and Santos (2009), 363 Oliveira, Carrijo, and Brandão (2013), 364 Reis and Cancello (2007), 365 Zeidler, Hanrahan, and Scholes (2002), 366 D'Cruze and Kumar (2011), 367 Fabricius, Burger, and Hockey (2003), 368 Pelegrin and Bucher (2012), 369 Urbina‐Cardona, Londoño‐Murcia, and García‐Ávila (2008), 370 Chauvat, Wolters, and Dauber (2007), 371 Fiera (2008), 372 Savage, Wheeler, Moores, and Taillefer (2011), 373 Virgilio, Backeljau, Emeleme, Juakali, and De Meyer (2011), 374 Andersen, Ludwig, Lowe, and Rentz (2001), 375 Otto and Roloff (2012), 376 Zimmerman, Bell, Woodcock, Palmer, and Paloniemi (2011), 377 Hornung, Tothmeresz, Magura, and Vilisics (2007), 378 Magrini, Freitas, and Uehara‐Prado (2011), 379 Laurance and Laurance (1996), 380 Bragagnolo, Nogueira, Pinto‐da‐Rocha, and Pardini (2007), 381 Herrera, Wright, Lauterbur, Ratovonjanahary, and Taylor (2011), 382 Jung and Powell (2011), 383 Bartolommei, Mortelliti, Pezzo, and Puglisi (2013), 384 Andersen and Hoffmann (2011), 385 Armbrecht, Perfecto, and Silverman (2006), 386 Bihn, Verhaagh, Braendle, and Brandl (2008), 387 Buczkowski (2010), 388 Buczkowski and Richmond (2012), 389 Delabie et al. (2009), 390 Dominguez‐Haydar and Armbrecht (2010), 391 Fayle et al. (2010), 392 Floren, Freking, Biehl, and Linsenmair (2001), 393 Frizzo and Vasconcelos (2013), 394 Gove, Majer, and Rico‐Gray (2005), 395 Gunawardene, Majer, and Edirisinghe (2010), 396 Hashim, Akmal, Jusoh, and Nasir (2010), 397 Kone, Konate, Yeo, Kouassi, and Linsenmair (2010), 398 Maeto and Sato (2004), 399 Roth, Perfecto, and Rathcke (1994), 400 Schmidt, Fraser, Carlyle, and Bassett (2012), 401 Uehara‐Prado (2005), 402 Vasconcelos (1999), 403 Vasconcelos, Vilhena, and Caliri (2000), 404 Fierro, Cruz‐Lopez, Sanchez, Villanueva‐Gutierrez, and Vandame (2012), 405 Hanley (2005), 406 Julier and Roulston (2009), 407 Liow, Sodhi, and Elmqvist (2001), 408 Nielsen et al. (2011), 409 Parra‐H and Nates‐Parra (2007), 410 Rasmussen (2009), 411 Winfree, Griswold, and Kremen (2007), 412 da Silva (2011), 413 Davis and Philips (2005), 414 Filgueiras, Iannuzzi, and Leal (2011), 415 Gardner, Hernandez, Barlow, and Peres (2008), 416 Horgan (2009), 417 Jacobs, Scholtz, Escobar, and Davis (2010), 418 Navarrete and Halffter (2008), 419 Navarro, Roman, Gomez, and Perez (2011), 420 Noriega, Realpe, and Fagua (2007), 421 Noriega, Palacio, Monroy‐G, and Valencia (2012), 422 Rös, Escobar, and Halffter (2012), 423 Silva, Costa, Moura, and Farias (2010), 424 Slade, Mann, and Lewis (2011), 425 Gu, Zhen‐Rong, and Dun‐Xiao (2004), 426 Koivula, Hyyrylainen, and Soininen (2004), 427 Liu, Axmacher, Wang, Li, and Yu (2012), 428 Noreika and Kotze (2012), 429 Rey‐Velasco and Miranda‐Esquivel (2012), 430 Vanbergen, Woodcock, Watt, and Niemela (2005), 431 Weller and Ganzhorn (2004), 432 Aguilar‐Barquero and Jiménez‐Hernández (2009), 433 Carvalho, Ferreira, Lima, and de Carvalho (2010), 434 Svenning (1998), 435 Benedick et al. (2006), 436 Fermon, Waltert, Vane‐Wright, and Muhlenberg (2005), 437 Ribeiro and Freitas (2012), 438 Breedt, Dreber, and Kellner (2013), 439 Scott, Setterfield, Douglas, and Andersen (2010), 440 Cagle (2008), 441 Johnson, Gómez, and Pinedo‐Vasquez (2008), 442 Su, Zhang, and Qiu (2011), 443 Gottschalk, De Toni, Valente, and Hofmann (2007), 444 Axmacher et al. (2009), 445 García, Ortiz Zapata, Aguayo, and D'Elia (2013), 446 Jolli and Pandit (2011), 447 Saldaña‐Vázquez, Sosa, Hernández‐Montero, and López‐Barrera (2010), 448 Nicolas, Barriere, Tapiero, and Colyn (2009), 449 Sakchoowong, Nomura, Ogata, and Chanpaisaeng (2008), 450 García‐R, Cárdenas‐H, and Castro‐H (2007), 451 Yoshikura, Yasui, and Kamijo (2011), 452 Connop, Hill, Steer, and Shaw (2011), 453 Darvill, Knight, and Goulson (2004), 454 Diekötter, Walther‐Hellwig, Conradi, Suter, and Frankl (2006), 455 Goulson, Lye, and Darvill (2008), 456 Goulson et al. (2010), 457 Hanley et al. (2011), 458 Hatfield and LeBuhn (2007), 459 McFrederick and LeBuhn (2006), 460 Redpath, Osgathorpe, Park, and Goulson (2010), 461 Schumann, Wittig, Thiombiano, Becker, and Hahn (2011), 462 Nakashima, Inoue, and Akomo‐Okoue (2013), 463 Wiafe and Amfo‐Otu (2012), 464 Peters, Fischer, Schaab, and Kraemer (2009), 465 Peters, Lung, Schaab, and Waegele (2011), 466 Matsumoto, Itioka, Yamane, and Momose (2009), 467 Rubio and Simonetti (2011), 468 Herrmann, Westphal, Moritz, and Steffan‐Dewenter (2007), 469 Knight et al. (2009), 470 Ancrenaz, Goossens, Gimenez, Sawang, and Lackman‐Ancrenaz (2004), 471 Felton, Engstrom, Felton, and Knott (2003), 472 Knop, Ward, and Wich (2004), 473 Ewers, Bartlam, and Didham (2013), 474 Davis, Murray, Fitzpatrick, Brown, and Paxton (2010), 475 Hanson, Brunsfeld, Finegan, and Waits (2008), 476 Strauch and Eby (2012), 477 Ramos‐Robles, Gallina, and Mandujano (2013), 478 Ferreira and Alves (2005, 2009), 479 Luskin (2010), 480 Grogan et al. (2008)

Figure 6

Spatiotemporal sampling coverage. Site sampling dates are shown by biome. Each Site is represented by a circle and line. Circle radii are proportional to log₁₀ of the number of samples at that Site. Circle centers are at the midpoints of Site sampling dates; lines indicate the start and end dates of sampling. Y‐values have been jittered at the Study level. Circles and lines have the same degree of partial transparency. Biome colors and letters are as in Figure 1