Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2017 Apr 23;4(4):CD011998.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011998.pub2.

Dietary interventions for adults with chronic kidney disease

Suetonia C Palmer  1 , Jasjot K Maggo  1 , Katrina L Campbell  2 , Jonathan C Craig  3   4 , David W Johnson  5 , Bernadet Sutanto  6 , Marinella Ruospo  7   8 , Allison Tong  3   6 , Giovanni Fm Strippoli  3   4   7   9   10
Affiliations

Dietary interventions for adults with chronic kidney disease

Suetonia C Palmer et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Dietary changes are routinely recommended in people with chronic kidney disease (CKD) on the basis of randomised evidence in the general population and non-randomised studies in CKD that suggest certain healthy eating patterns may prevent cardiovascular events and lower mortality. People who have kidney disease have prioritised dietary modifications as an important treatment uncertainty.

Objectives: This review evaluated the benefits and harms of dietary interventions among adults with CKD including people with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) treated with dialysis or kidney transplantation.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Specialised Register (up to 31 January 2017) through contact with the Information Specialist using search terms relevant to this review. Studies contained in the Specialised Register are identified through search strategies specifically designed for CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and EMBASE; handsearching conference proceedings; and searching the International Clinical Trials Register (ICTRP) Search Portal and ClinicalTrials.gov.

Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-randomised RCTs of dietary interventions versus other dietary interventions, lifestyle advice, or standard care assessing mortality, cardiovascular events, health-related quality of life, and biochemical, anthropomorphic, and nutritional outcomes among people with CKD.

Data collection and analysis: Two authors independently screened studies for inclusion and extracted data. Results were summarised as risk ratios (RR) for dichotomous outcomes or mean differences (MD) or standardised MD (SMD) for continuous outcomes, with 95% confidence intervals (CI) or in descriptive format when meta-analysis was not possible. Confidence in the evidence was assessed using GRADE.

Main results: We included 17 studies involving 1639 people with CKD. Three studies enrolled 341 people treated with dialysis, four studies enrolled 168 kidney transplant recipients, and 10 studies enrolled 1130 people with CKD stages 1 to 5. Eleven studies (900 people) evaluated dietary counselling with or without lifestyle advice and six evaluated dietary patterns (739 people), including one study (191 people) of a carbohydrate-restricted low-iron, polyphenol enriched diet, two studies (181 people) of increased fruit and vegetable intake, two studies (355 people) of a Mediterranean diet and one study (12 people) of a high protein/low carbohydrate diet. Risks of bias in the included studies were generally high or unclear, lowering confidence in the results. Participants were followed up for a median of 12 months (range 1 to 46.8 months).Studies were not designed to examine all-cause mortality or cardiovascular events. In very-low quality evidence, dietary interventions had uncertain effects on all-cause mortality or ESKD. In absolute terms, dietary interventions may prevent one person in every 3000 treated for one year avoiding ESKD, although the certainty in this effect was very low. Across all 17 studies, outcome data for cardiovascular events were sparse. Dietary interventions in low quality evidence were associated with a higher health-related quality of life (2 studies, 119 people: MD in SF-36 score 11.46, 95% CI 7.73 to 15.18; I2 = 0%). Adverse events were generally not reported.Dietary interventions lowered systolic blood pressure (3 studies, 167 people: MD -9.26 mm Hg, 95% CI -13.48 to -5.04; I2 = 80%) and diastolic blood pressure (2 studies, 95 people: MD -8.95, 95% CI -10.69 to -7.21; I2 = 0%) compared to a control diet. Dietary interventions were associated with a higher estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) (5 studies, 219 people: SMD 1.08; 95% CI 0.26 to 1.97; I2 = 88%) and serum albumin levels (6 studies, 541 people: MD 0.16 g/dL, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.24; I2 = 26%). A Mediterranean diet lowered serum LDL cholesterol levels (1 study, 40 people: MD -1.00 mmol/L, 95% CI -1.56 to -0.44).

Authors' conclusions: Dietary interventions have uncertain effects on mortality, cardiovascular events and ESKD among people with CKD as these outcomes were rarely measured or reported. Dietary interventions may increase health-related quality of life, eGFR, and serum albumin, and lower blood pressure and serum cholesterol levels.Based on stakeholder prioritisation of dietary research in the setting of CKD and preliminary evidence of beneficial effects on risks factors for clinical outcomes, large-scale pragmatic RCTs to test the effects of dietary interventions on patient outcomes are required.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

  1. Suetonia C Palmer: none known

  2. Jasjot Maggo: none known

  3. Allison Tong: none known

  4. Katrina L Campbell: none known

  5. Jonathan C Craig: none known

  6. David W Johnson: none known

  7. Bernadet Sutanto: none known

  8. Marinella Ruospo: none known

  9. Giovanni FM Strippoli: none known

Figures

1
1
Flow diagram of study selection
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

  • doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011998

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Campbell 2008 {published data only}
    1. Campbell KL, Ash S, Bauer JD. The impact of nutrition intervention on quality of life in pre‐dialysis chronic kidney disease patients. Clinical Nutrition 2008;27(4):537‐44. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Campbell KL, Ash S, Davies PS, Bauer JD. Randomized controlled trial of nutritional counseling on body composition and dietary intake in severe CKD. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2008;51(5):748‐58. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Chanwikrai 2012 {published data only}
    1. Chanwikrai Y, Satirapod B. A randomized controlled trial of dietary and lifestyle modification based on the empowerment approach among chronic kidney disease patients [abstract no:311]. Kidney Research & Clinical Practice 2012;31(2):A95.
DIRECT Study 2013 {published data only}
    1. Shai I. The effect of low‐carb, Mediterranean and low‐fat diets on renal function; a 2‐year dietary intervention randomized controlled trial (DIRECT) [abstract]. Obesity Facts 2012;5(Suppl 1):19. [EMBASE: 70781690]
    1. Tirosh A, Golan R, Harman‐Boehm I, Henkin Y, Schwarzfuchs D, Rudich A, et al. Renal function following three distinct weight loss dietary strategies during 2 years of a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 2013;36(8):2225‐32. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Facchini 2003 {published data only}
    1. Facchini FS, Saylor KL. A low‐iron‐available, polyphenol‐enriched, carbohydrate‐restricted diet to slow progression of diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes 2003;52(5):1204‐9. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Flesher 2011 {published data only}
    1. Flesher M, Woo P, Chiu A, Charlebois A, Warburton DE, Leslie B. Self‐management and biomedical outcomes of a cooking, and exercise program for patients with chronic kidney disease. Journal of Renal Nutrition 2011;21(2):188‐95. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Goraya 2013 {published data only}
    1. Goraya N, Simoni J, Jo CH, Wesson DE. A comparison of treating metabolic acidosis in CKD stage 4 hypertensive kidney disease with fruits and vegetables or sodium bicarbonate. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology: CJASN 2013;8(3):371‐81. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Goraya 2014 {published data only}
    1. Goraya N, Simoni J, Jo CH, Wesson DE. Treatment of metabolic acidosis in patients with stage 3 chronic kidney disease with fruits and vegetables or oral bicarbonate reduces urine angiotensinogen and preserves glomerular filtration rate. Kidney International 2014;86(5):1031‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Leon 2006 {published data only}
    1. Leon JB, Albert JM, Gilchrist G, Kushner I, Lerner E, Mach S, et al. Improving albumin levels among hemodialysis patients: a community‐based randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2006;48(1):28‐36. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Mekki 2010 {published data only}
    1. Mekki K, Bouzidi‐bekada N, Kaddous A, Bouchenak M. Mediterranean diet improves dyslipidemia and biomarkers in chronic renal failure patients. Food & Function 2010;1(1):110‐5. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Orazio 2011 {published data only}
    1. Orazio LK, Isbel NM, Armstrong KA, Tarnarskyj J, Johnson DW, Hale RE, et al. Evaluation of dietetic advice for modification of cardiovascular disease risk factors in renal transplant recipients. Journal of Renal Nutrition 2011;21(6):462‐71. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Riccio 2014 {published data only}
    1. Riccio E, Sabbatini M, Bellizzi V, Pisani A. Effects of the 6‐point diet on the metabolic control, the compliance and the nutritional status of CKD patients stage 3B‐5 [abstract no: MP248]. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 2014;29(Suppl 3):iii410‐1. [EMBASE: 71492651]
Stachowska 2005 {published data only}
    1. Stachowska E, Gutowska I, Strzelczak A, Wesolowska T, Safranow K, Ciechanowski K, et al. The use of neural networks in evaluation of the direction and dynamics of changes in lipid parameters in kidney transplant patients on the Mediterranean diet.[Erratum appears in J Ren Nutr. 2006 Jul;16(3):290 Note: Ciechanowski, Kazimierz [added]]. Journal of Renal Nutrition 2006;16(2):150‐9. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Stachowska E, Wesolowska T, Olszewska M, Safranow K, Millo B, Domanski L, et al. Elements of Mediterranean diet improve oxidative status in blood of kidney graft recipients. British Journal of Nutrition 2005;93(3):345‐52. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Stachowska E, Wesolowska T, Safranow K, Domanski L, Rac M, Dziedziejko V, et al. Simple dietary interventions reduce the risk factors of atherosclerosis in renal graft recipients. Journal of Renal Nutrition 2005;15(3):291‐7. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Sutton 2007 {published data only}
    1. Sutton D, Higgins B, Stevens JM. Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients are unable to increase dietary intake to recommended levels. Journal of Renal Nutrition 2007;17(5):329‐35. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Teng 2013 {published data only}
    1. Teng HL, Yen M, Fetzer S, Sung JM, Hung SY. Effects of targeted interventions on lifestyle modifications of chronic kidney disease patients: randomized controlled trial. Western Journal of Nursing Research 2013;35(9):1107‐27. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Tzvetanov 2014 {published data only}
    1. Tzvetanov I, West‐Thielke P, D'Amico G, Johnsen M, Ladik A, Hachaj G, et al. A novel and personalized rehabilitation program for obese kidney transplant recipients. Transplantation Proceedings 2014;46(10):3431‐7. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Whittier 1985 {published data only}
    1. Whittier FC, Evans DH, Dutton S, Ross G, Luger A, Nolph KD, et al. Nutrition in renal transplantation. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 1985;6(6):405‐11. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Zhou 2011b {published data only}
    1. Zhou XR, Yu K, Tang QQ. Effects of nutritional intervention and individualized nursing on nutritional risk, undernutrition, and quality of life in end‐stage renal disease patients with peritoneal dialysis: a randomized controlled study. Chinese Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2011;19(4):222‐6. [EMBASE: 362677283]

References to studies excluded from this review

Parillo 1988 {published data only}
    1. Parillo M, Riccardi G, Pacioni D, Iovine C, Contaldo F, Isernia C, et al. Metabolic consequences of feeding a high‐carbohydrate, high‐fiber diet to diabetic patients with chronic kidney failure. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988;48(2):255‐9. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

INTENT Study 2014 {published data only}
    1. Ryan KJ, Casas JM, Mash LE, McLellan SL, Lloyd LE, Stinear JW, et al. The effect of intensive nutrition interventions on weight gain after kidney transplantation: protocol of a randomised controlled trial. BMC Nephrology 2014;15:148. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed

Additional references

Abiemo 2012
    1. Abiemo EE, Alonso A, Nettleton JA, Steffen LM, Bertoni AG, Jain A, et al. Relationships of the Mediterranean dietary pattern with insulin resistance and diabetes incidence in the Multi‐Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). British Journal of Nutrition 2013;109(8):1490‐7. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Adler 2014
    1. Adler AJ, Taylor F, Martin N, Gottlieb S, Taylor RS, Ebrahim S. Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 12. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009217.pub3] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Anderson 2008
    1. Anderson R. New MRC guidance on evaluating complex interventions. BMJ 2008;337:a1937. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Chadban 2003
    1. Chadban SJ, Briganti EM, Kerr PG, Dunstan DW, Welborn TA, Zimmet PZ, et al. Prevalence of kidney damage in Australian adults: The AusDiab kidney study. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 2003;14(7 Suppl 2):S131‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Chen 2016
    1. Chen X, Wei G, Jalili T, Metos J, Giri A, Cho ME, et al. The associations of plant protein intake with all‐cause mortality in CKD. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2016;67(3):423‐30. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Estruch 2013
    1. Estruch R, Ros E, Salas‐Salvado J, Covas MI, Corella D, Aros F, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet. New England Journal of Medicine 2013;368(14):1279‐90. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Fouque 2009
    1. Fouque D, Laville M. Low protein diets for chronic kidney disease in non diabetic adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001892.pub3] - DOI - PubMed
Go 2004
    1. Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, McCulloch CE, Hsu CY. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization.[Erratum appears in N Engl J Med. 2008;18(4):4]. New England Journal of Medicine 2004;351(13):1296‐305. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
GRADE 2008
    1. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist GE, Kunz R, Falck‐Ytter Y, Alonso‐Coello P, et al. GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 2008;336(7650):924‐6. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Gutierrez 2014
    1. Gutierrez OM, Muntner P, Rizk DV, McClellan WM, Warnock DG, Newby PK, et al. Dietary patterns and risk of death and progression to ESRD in individuals with CKD: a cohort study. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2014;64(2):204‐13. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Hartley 2013
    1. Hartley L, Igbinedion E, Holmes J, Flowers N, Thorogood M, Clarke A, et al. Increased consumption of fruit and vegetables for the primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 6. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009874.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Hemmelgarn 2010
    1. Hemmelgarn BR, Manns BJ, Lloyd A, James MT, Klarenbach S, Quinn RR, et al. Relation between kidney function, proteinuria, and adverse outcomes. JAMA 2010;303(5):423‐9. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Higgins 2003
    1. Higgins JP, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG. Measuring inconsistency in meta‐analyses. BMJ 2003;327(7414):557‐60. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JP, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Hoffmann 2014
    1. Hoffmann TC, Glasziou PP, Boutron I, Milne R, Perera R, Moher D, et al. Better reporting of interventions: template for intervention description and replication (TIDieR) checklist and guide. BMJ 2014;348:g1687. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Jha 2013
    1. Jha V, Garcia‐Garcia G, Iseki K, Li Z, Naicker S, Plattner B, et al. Chronic kidney disease: global dimension and perspectives.[Erratum appears in Lancet. 2013 Jul 20;382(9888):208]. Lancet 2013;382(9888):260‐72. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Johnson 2011
    1. Johnson ES, Smith DH, Thorp ML, Yang X, Juhaeri J. Predicting the risk of end‐stage renal disease in the population‐based setting: a retrospective case‐control study. BMC Nephrology 2011;12:17. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Jun 2012
    1. Jun M, Venkataraman V, Razavian M, Cooper B, Zoungas S, Ninomiya T, et al. Antioxidants for chronic kidney disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 10. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD008176.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
KDIGO 2012
    1. Levin A, Stevens PE, Bilous RW, Coresh J, Francisco AL, Jong PE. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney International ‐ Supplement 2013;3(1):1‐150. [EMBASE: 369856107]
Liu 2015
    1. Liu Z, Su G, Guo X, Wu Y, Liu X, Zou C, et al. Dietary interventions for mineral and bone disorder in people with chronic kidney disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 9. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010350.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Manns 2014
    1. Manns B, Hemmelgarn B, Lillie E, Dip SC, Cyr A, Gladish M, et al. Setting research priorities for patients on or nearing dialysis. Clinical Journal of The American Society of Nephrology: CJASN 2014;9(10):1813‐21. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
McMahon 2015
    1. McMahon EJ, Campbell KL, Bauer JD, Mudge DW. Altered dietary salt intake for people with chronic kidney disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010070.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Moore 2014
    1. Moore G, Audrey S, Barker M, Bond L, Bonell C, Cooper C, et al. Process evaluation in complex public health intervention studies: the need for guidance.[Erratum appears in J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014 Jun;68(6):585]. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 2014;68(2):101‐2. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Muntner 2013
    1. Muntner P, Judd SE, Gao L, Gutierrez OM, Rizk DV, McClellan W, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in CKD associate with both ESRD and mortality. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 2013;24(7):1159‐65. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Nakayama 1996
    1. Nakayama M, Okuda S, Tamaki K, Fujishima M. Short‐ or long‐term effects of a low‐protein diet on fibronectin and transforming growth factor‐beta synthesis in Adriamycin‐induced nephropathy. Journal of Laboratory & Clinical Medicine 1996;127(1):29‐39. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Nettleton 2008
    1. Nettleton JA, Steffen LM, Palmas W, Burke GL, Jacobs DR Jr. Associations between microalbuminuria and animal foods, plant foods, and dietary patterns in the Multiethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;87(6):1825‐36. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Nield 2008
    1. Nield L, Summerbell CD, Hooper L, Whittaker V, Moore H. Dietary advice for the prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005102.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Orozco 2008
    1. Orozco LJ, Buchleitner AM, Gimenez‐Perez G, Roque I Figuls M, Richter B, et al. Exercise or exercise and diet for preventing type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003054.pub3] - DOI - PubMed
Palmer 2015a
    1. Palmer SC, Hanson CS, Craig JC, Strippoli GF, Ruospo M, Campbell K, et al. Dietary and fluid restrictions in CKD: a thematic synthesis of patient views from qualitative studies. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2015;65(4):559‐73. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Peters 2000
    1. Peters H, Border WA, Noble NA. Angiotensin II blockade and low‐protein diet produce additive therapeutic effects in experimental glomerulonephritis. Kidney International 2000;57(4):1493‐501. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Rees 2013a
    1. Rees K, Dyakova M, Wilson N, Ward K, Thorogood M, Brunner E. Dietary advice for reducing cardiovascular risk. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 12. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002128.pub5] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Rees 2013b
    1. Rees K, Hartley L, Flowers N, Clarke A, Hooper L, Thorogood M, et al. 'Mediterranean' dietary pattern for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 8. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009825.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Robertson 2007
    1. Robertson LM, Waugh N, Robertson A. Protein restriction for diabetic renal disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002181.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Schunemann 2011a
    1. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Higgins JP, Vist GE, Glasziou P, Guyatt GH. Chapter 11: Presenting results and 'Summary of findings' tables. In: Higgins JP, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Schunemann 2011b
    1. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Higgins JP, Deeks JJ, Glasziou P, Guyatt GH. Chapter 12: Interpreting results and drawing conclusions. In: Higgins JP, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Singh 2009
    1. Singh NP, Ingle GK, Saini VK, Jami A, Beniwal P, Lal M, et al. Prevalence of low glomerular filtration rate, proteinuria and associated risk factors in North India using Cockcroft‐Gault and Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equation: an observational, cross‐sectional study. BMC Nephrology 2009; Vol. 10:4. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Stamler 1996
    1. Stamler J, Caggiula A, Grandits G A, Kjelsberg M, Cutler JA. Relationship to blood pressure of combinations of dietary macronutrients. Findings of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT). Circulation 1996;94(10):2417‐23. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Tong 2015
    1. Tong A, Crowe S, Chando S, Cass A, Chadban SJ, Chapman JR, et al. Research priorities in chronic kidney disease for Australia: report of a conference. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2015;66(2):212‐22. [DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.02.341] - DOI - PubMed
Tong 2015a
    1. Tong A, Chando S, Crowe S, Manns B, Winkelmayer WC, Hemmelgarn B, et al. Research priority setting in kidney disease: a systematic review. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2015;65(5):674‐83. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Tong 2015b
    1. Tong A, Manns B, Hemmelgarn B, Wheeler DC, Tugwell P, Winkelmayer WC, et al. Standardised outcomes in nephrology ‐ Haemodialysis (SONG‐HD): study protocol for establishing a core outcome set in haemodialysis. Trials [Electronic Resource] 2015;16:364. [PUBMED: 26285819] - PMC - PubMed
van Dijk 2012
    1. Dijk SJ, Feskens EJ, Bos MB, Groot LC, Vries JH, Muller M, et al. Consumption of a high monounsaturated fat diet reduces oxidative phosphorylation gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of abdominally overweight men and women. Journal of Nutrition 2012;142(7):1219‐25. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Weiner 2006
    1. Weiner DE, Tabatabai S, Tighiouart H, Elsayed E, Bansal N, Griffith J, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes and all‐cause mortality: exploring the interaction between CKD and cardiovascular disease. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2006;48(3):392‐401. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Wyld 2012
    1. Wyld M, Morton RL, Hayen A, Howard K, Webster AC. A systematic review and meta‐analysis of utility‐based quality of life in chronic kidney disease treatments. PLoS Medicine 2012;9(9):e1001307. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
Zamora‐Ros 2013
    1. Zamora‐Ros R, Serafini M, Estruch R, Lamuela‐ Raventós RM, Martínez‐González MA, Salas‐Salvadó J, et al. Mediterranean diet and non enzymatic antioxidant capacity in the PREDIMED study: Evidence for a mechanism of antioxidant tuning. Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases 2013;23(12):1167‐74. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Zhang 2012
    1. Zhang L, Wang F, Wang L, Wang W, Liu B, Liu J, et al. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in China: a cross‐sectional survey.[Erratum appears in Lancet. 2012 Aug 18;380(9842):650]. Lancet 2012;379(9818):815‐22. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Palmer 2015b
    1. Palmer SC, Maggo JK, Campbell KL, Craig JC, Johnson DW, Sutanto B, et al. Dietary patterns for adults with chronic kidney disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 12. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011998] - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Publication types

MeSH terms