Coronary Artery Calcification: From Mechanism to Molecular Imaging

Abstract

Vascular calcification is a hallmark of atherosclerosis. The location, density, and confluence of calcification may change portions of the arterial conduit to a noncompliant structure. Calcifications may also seed the cap of a thin cap fibroatheroma, altering tensile forces on the cap and rendering the lesion prone to rupture. Many local and systemic factors participate in this process, including hyperlipidemia, ongoing inflammation, large necrotic cores, and diabetes. Vascular cells can undergo chondrogenic or osteogenic differentiation, causing mineralization of membranous bone and formation of endochondral bone. Calcifying vascular cells are derived from local smooth muscle cells and circulating hematopoietic stem cells (especially in intimal calcification). Matrix vesicles in the extracellular space of the necrotic core serve as a nidus for calcification. Although coronary calcification is a marker of coronary atheroma, dense calcification (>400 HU) is usually associated with stable plaques. Conversely, microcalcification (often also referred to as spotty calcification) is more commonly an accompaniment of vulnerable plaques. Recent studies have suggested that microcalcification in the fibrous cap may increase local tissue stress (depending on the proximity of one microcalcific locus to another, and the orientation of the microcalcification in reference to blood flow), resulting in plaque instability. It has been proposed that positron emission tomography imaging with sodium fluoride may identify early calcific deposits and hence high-risk plaques.

Keywords: calcification; chondrogenic/osteogenic differentiation; imaging; matrix vesicle; vulnerable plaques.