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Meta-Analysis
. 2017 May 26;5(5):CD008892.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008892.pub2.

Rapid diagnostic tests for typhoid and paratyphoid (enteric) fever

Lalith Wijedoru  1 , Sue Mallett  2 , Christopher M Parry  1
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Rapid diagnostic tests for typhoid and paratyphoid (enteric) fever

Lalith Wijedoru et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Differentiating both typhoid (Salmonella Typhi) and paratyphoid (Salmonella Paratyphi A) infection from other causes of fever in endemic areas is a diagnostic challenge. Although commercial point-of-care rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for enteric fever are available as alternatives to the current reference standard test of blood or bone marrow culture, or to the widely used Widal Test, their diagnostic accuracy is unclear. If accurate, they could potentially replace blood culture as the World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended main diagnostic test for enteric fever.

Objectives: To assess the diagnostic accuracy of commercially available rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) and prototypes for detecting Salmonella Typhi or Paratyphi A infection in symptomatic persons living in endemic areas.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register, MEDLINE, Embase, Science Citation Index, IndMED, African Index Medicus, LILACS, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) up to 4 March 2016. We manually searched WHO reports, and papers from international conferences on Salmonella infections. We also contacted test manufacturers to identify studies.

Selection criteria: We included diagnostic accuracy studies of enteric fever RDTs in patients with fever or with symptoms suggestive of enteric fever living in endemic areas. We classified the reference standard used as either Grade 1 (result from a blood culture and a bone marrow culture) or Grade 2 (result from blood culture and blood polymerase chain reaction, or from blood culture alone).

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently extracted the test result data. We used a modified QUADAS-2 extraction form to assess methodological quality. We performed a meta-analysis when there were sufficient studies for the test and heterogeneity was reasonable.

Main results: Thirty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria and included a total of 5080 participants (range 50 to 1732). Enteric fever prevalence rates in the study populations ranged from 1% to 75% (median prevalence 24%, interquartile range (IQR) 11% to 46%). The included studies evaluated 16 different RDTs, and 16 studies compared two or more different RDTs. Only three studies used the Grade 1 reference standard, and only 11 studies recruited unselected febrile patients. Most included studies were from Asia, with five studies from sub-Saharan Africa. All of the RDTs were designed to detect S.Typhi infection only.Most studies evaluated three RDTs and their variants: TUBEX in 14 studies; Typhidot (Typhidot, Typhidot-M, and TyphiRapid-Tr02) in 22 studies; and the Test-It Typhoid immunochromatographic lateral flow assay, and its earlier prototypes (dipstick, latex agglutination) developed by the Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam (KIT) in nine studies. Meta-analyses showed an average sensitivity of 78% (95% confidence interval (CI) 71% to 85%) and specificity of 87% (95% CI 82% to 91%) for TUBEX; and an average sensitivity of 69% (95% CI 59% to 78%) and specificity of 90% (95% CI 78% to 93%) for all Test-It Typhoid and prototype tests (KIT). Across all forms of the Typhidot test, the average sensitivity was 84% (95% CI 73% to 91%) and specificity was 79% (95% CI 70% to 87%). When we based the analysis on the 13 studies of the Typhidot test that either reported indeterminate test results or where the test format means there are no indeterminate results, the average sensitivity was 78% (95% CI 65% to 87%) and specificity was 77% (95% CI 66% to 86%). We did not identify any difference in either sensitivity or specificity between TUBEX, Typhidot, and Test-it Typhoid tests when based on comparison to the 13 Typhidot studies where indeterminate results are either reported or not applicable. If TUBEX and Test-it Typhoid are compared to all Typhidot studies, the sensitivity of Typhidot was higher than Test-it Typhoid (15% (95% CI 2% to 28%), but other comparisons did not show a difference at the 95% level of CIs.In a hypothetical cohort of 1000 patients presenting with fever where 30% (300 patients) have enteric fever, on average Typhidot tests reporting indeterminate results or where tests do not produce indeterminate results will miss the diagnosis in 66 patients with enteric fever, TUBEX will miss 66, and Test-It Typhoid and prototype (KIT) tests will miss 93. In the 700 people without enteric fever, the number of people incorrectly diagnosed with enteric fever would be 161 with Typhidot tests, 91 with TUBEX, and 70 with Test-It Typhoid and prototype (KIT) tests. The CIs around these estimates were wide, with no difference in false positive results shown between tests.The quality of the data for each study was evaluated using a standardized checklist called QUADAS-2. Overall, the certainty of the evidence in the studies that evaluated enteric fever RDTs was low.

Authors' conclusions: In 37 studies that evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of RDTs for enteric fever, few studies were at a low risk of bias. The three main RDT tests and variants had moderate diagnostic accuracy. There was no evidence of a difference between the average sensitivity and specificity of the three main RDT tests. More robust evaluations of alternative RDTs for enteric fever are needed.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

LW and CMP are authors of Moore 2014 and Maude 2015. SM has no known conflicts of interest.

Figures

1
1
PRISMA flow diagram.
2
2
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: Enterocheck WB, PanBio, SD Bioline, Mega Salmonella, Multi‐Test Dip‐S‐Tick.
3
3
Risk of bias and applicability concerns graph: review authors' judgements about each domain presented as percentages across included studies.
4
4
Risk of bias and applicability concerns summary: review authors' judgements about each domain for each included study.
5
5
Summary ROC Typhidot all test types.
6
6
Forest plots for Typhidot all test types.
7
7
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot of tests: Typhidot and Typhidot‐M by reference test. Abbreviations: BC: blood culture; BM: bone marrow; BC & PCR: blood culture and polymerase chain reaction.
8
8
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot of test: TUBEX. Reference test: Blood culture. One result per study.
9
9
Forest plot of TUBEX. Reference test blood culture.
10
10
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: TUBEX by case control design. Abbreviation: BC: blood culture.
11
11
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: TUBEX by reference test Abbreviations: BC: blood culture; BC & PCR: blood culture and polymerase chain reaction.
12
12
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: KIT all test types. Threshold > 1+.
13
13
Forest plot of tests: KIT Threshold > 1+ by test type. Reference test: blood culture.
14
14
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: KIT test by threshold > 1+ and > 2+.
15
15
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: KIT ICT by reference test. Abbreviations: BC: blood culture; BC & PCR: blood culture and polymerase chain reaction.
16
16
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: KIT by case control (All test types. Threshold >1+).
17
17
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: Typhidot versus TUBEX. Paired studies only. One result per index test per study.
18
18
Summary receiver operating characteristic: TUBEX versus KIT. Paired results. One result per index per study.
19
19
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: Typhidot versus TUBEX tests. One result per index test per study.
20
20
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: TUBEX versus Test‐it Typhoid (KIT) tests. One result per index test per study.
21
21
Summary receiver operating characteristic: Typhidot versus KIT. No paired studies. One result per index per study.
22
22
Summary receiver operating characteristic plot: Typhidot tests by case control design.
1
1. Test
Typhidot. Antibody: IgM or as reported. 1 result per study.
2
2. Test
Typhidot. Antibody: IgM or as reported. Reference: BC.
3
3. Test
Typhidot. Antibody: IgM or as reported. Reference: BC and BM.
4
4. Test
Typhidot. Antibody: IgM or as reported. Reference: BC and PCR.
5
5. Test
Typhidot. Antibody: IgM or as reported. Indeterminates reported.
6
6. Test
Typhidot. Antibody: IgM or as reported. Indeterminates not reported.
7
7. Test
Typhidot‐M. Antibody: IgM.
8
8. Test
Typhi rapid Tr‐02. Reference: BC. Antibody: IgM.
9
9. Test
Typhi rapid Tr‐02. Reference: BC & PCR. Antibody: IgM.
10
10. Test
Typhidot all tests 1 result per study.
11
11. Test
TUBEX. Reference:BC.
12
12. Test
TUBEX. Reference: BC & PCR.
13
13. Test
TUBEX 1 result per study.
14
14. Test
KIT ICT. Reference:BC. Threshold > 1+.
15
15. Test
KIT ICT. Reference: BC & PCR. Threshold > 1+.
16
16. Test
KIT latex agglutination. Threshold > 1+.
17
17. Test
KIT Dipstick. Threshold > 1+.
18
18. Test
KIT ICT. Threshold > 1+.
19
19. Test
KIT all tests. Threshold > 1+. One result per study..
20
20. Test
KIT all tests. Threshold > 2+ studies only.
21
21. Test
Enterocheck WB.
22
22. Test
PanBio.
23
23. Test
SD Bioline. Antibody: IgG.
24
24. Test
SD Bioline. Antibody: IgM.
25
25. Test
SD Bioline Antibody: IgM and IgG.
26
26. Test
Mega Salmonella. Antibody: IgG.
27
27. Test
Mega Salmonella. Antibody: IgM.
28
28. Test
Multi‐Test Dip‐S‐Tick.
29
29. Test
Enteroscreen.
30
30. Test
Onsite Typhoid Combo CTK Biotech.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

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References to other published versions of this review

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