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Meta-Analysis
. 2017 Jun 11;6(6):CD011660.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011660.pub2.

Exercise interventions for cerebral palsy

Jennifer M Ryan  1 , Elizabeth E Cassidy, Stephen G Noorduyn, Neil E O'Connell
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Exercise interventions for cerebral palsy

Jennifer M Ryan et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Cerebral palsy (CP) is a neurodevelopmental disorder resulting from an injury to the developing brain. It is the most common form of childhood disability with prevalence rates of between 1.5 and 3.8 per 1000 births reported worldwide. The primary impairments associated with CP include reduced muscle strength and reduced cardiorespiratory fitness, resulting in difficulties performing activities such as dressing, walking and negotiating stairs.Exercise is defined as a planned, structured and repetitive activity that aims to improve fitness, and it is a commonly used intervention for people with CP. Aerobic and resistance training may improve activity (i.e. the ability to execute a task) and participation (i.e. involvement in a life situation) through their impact on the primary impairments of CP. However, to date, there has been no comprehensive review of exercise interventions for people with CP.

Objectives: To assess the effects of exercise interventions in people with CP, primarily in terms of activity, participation and quality of life. Secondary outcomes assessed body functions and body structures. Comparators of interest were no treatment, usual care or an alternative type of exercise intervention.

Search methods: In June 2016 we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, nine other databases and four trials registers.

Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs of children, adolescents and adults with CP. We included studies of aerobic exercise, resistance training, and 'mixed training' (a combination of at least two of aerobic exercise, resistance training and anaerobic training).

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently screened titles, abstracts and potentially relevant full-text reports for eligibility; extracted all relevant data and conducted 'Risk of bias' and GRADE assessments.

Main results: We included 29 trials (926 participants); 27 included children and adolescents up to the age of 19 years, three included adolescents and young adults (10 to 22 years), and one included adults over 20 years. Males constituted 53% of the sample. Five trials were conducted in the USA; four in Australia; two in Egypt, Korea, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, the Netherlands, and the UK; three in Greece; and one apiece in India, Italy, Norway, and South Africa.Twenty-six trials included people with spastic CP only; three trials included children and adolescents with spastic and other types of CP. Twenty-one trials included people who were able to walk with or without assistive devices, four trials also included people who used wheeled mobility devices in most settings, and one trial included people who used wheeled mobility devices only. Three trials did not report the functional ability of participants. Only two trials reported participants' manual ability. Eight studies compared aerobic exercise to usual care, while 15 compared resistance training and 4 compared mixed training to usual care or no treatment. Two trials compared aerobic exercise to resistance training. We judged all trials to be at high risk of bias overall.We found low-quality evidence that aerobic exercise improves gross motor function in the short term (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.53, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.02 to 1.04, N = 65, 3 studies) and intermediate term (mean difference (MD) 12.96%, 95% CI 0.52% to 25.40%, N = 12, 1 study). Aerobic exercise does not improve gait speed in the short term (MD 0.09 m/s, 95% CI -0.11 m/s to 0.28 m/s, N = 82, 4 studies, very low-quality evidence) or intermediate term (MD -0.17 m/s, 95% CI -0.59 m/s to 0.24 m/s, N = 12, 1 study, low-quality evidence). No trial assessed participation or quality of life following aerobic exercise.We found low-quality evidence that resistance training does not improve gross motor function (SMD 0.12, 95% CI -0.19 to 0.43, N = 164, 7 studies), gait speed (MD 0.03 m/s, 95% CI -0.02 m/s to 0.07 m/s, N = 185, 8 studies), participation (SMD 0.34, 95% CI -0.01 to 0.70, N = 127, 2 studies) or parent-reported quality of life (MD 12.70, 95% CI -5.63 to 31.03, n = 12, 1 study) in the short term. There is also low-quality evidence that resistance training does not improve gait speed (MD -0.03 m/s, 95% CI -0.17 m/s to 0.11 m/s, N = 84, 3 studies), gross motor function (SMD 0.13, 95% CI -0.30 to 0.55, N = 85, 3 studies) or participation (MD 0.37, 95% CI -6.61 to 7.35, N = 36, 1 study) in the intermediate term.We found low-quality evidence that mixed training does not improve gross motor function (SMD 0.02, 95% CI -0.29 to 0.33, N = 163, 4 studies) or gait speed (MD 0.10 m/s, -0.07 m/s to 0.27 m/s, N = 58, 1 study) but does improve participation (MD 0.40, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.67, N = 65, 1 study) in the short-term.There is no difference between resistance training and aerobic exercise in terms of the effect on gross motor function in the short term (SMD 0.02, 95% CI -0.50 to 0.55, N = 56, 2 studies, low-quality evidence).Thirteen trials did not report adverse events, seven reported no adverse events, and nine reported non-serious adverse events.

Authors' conclusions: The quality of evidence for all conclusions is low to very low. As included trials have small sample sizes, heterogeneity may be underestimated, resulting in considerable uncertainty relating to effect estimates. For children with CP, there is evidence that aerobic exercise may result in a small improvement in gross motor function, though it does not improve gait speed. There is evidence that resistance training does not improve gait speed, gross motor function, participation or quality of life among children with CP.Based on the evidence available, exercise appears to be safe for people with CP; only 55% of trials, however, reported adverse events or stated that they monitored adverse events. There is a need for large, high-quality, well-reported RCTs that assess the effectiveness of exercise in terms of activity and participation, before drawing any firm conclusions on the effectiveness of exercise for people with CP. Research is also required to determine if current exercise guidelines for the general population are effective and feasible for people with CP.

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Conflict of interest statement

Jennifer M Ryan, Elizabeth E Cassidy, and Neil E O'Connell are chartered physiotherapists and lecturers in physiotherapy. As professionals who might be involved in the delivery of exercise interventions, it is plausible that they might be perceived as having a bias favouring the effectiveness of exercise.

Jennifer M Ryan is receiving funding from Action Medical Research and the Chartered Society of Physiotherapy Charitable Trust, to evaluate the feasibility, acceptability and efficacy of resistance training for adolescents with CP.

Elizabeth E Cassidy: none known.

Stephen G Noorduyn: Stephen was lead author on Noorduyn 2011, which was screened by JR and EC.

Neil E O'Connell: none known.

Figures

1
1
8071‐7926‐Study flow diagram.
2
2
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
3
3
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
4
4
Funnel plot of comparison: 6 Resistance training and mixed training versus usual care, outcome: 6.1 Activity: gross motor function; short term.
5
5
Funnel plot of comparison: 6 Resistance training and mixed training versus usual care, outcome: 6.6 Muscle strength; short term.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Aerobic exercise versus usual care, Outcome 1 Activity: gross motor function, short term.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Aerobic exercise versus usual care, Outcome 2 Activity: gait speed, short term.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Aerobic exercise versus usual care, Outcome 3 Activity: walking endurance; short term.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Aerobic exercise versus usual care, Outcome 4 Activity: gait speed, intermediate term.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Aerobic exercise versus usual care, Outcome 5 Activity: gross motor function, intermediate term.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Aerobic exercise versus usual care, Outcome 6 Activity: daily physical activity; short term.
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Aerobic exercise versus usual care, Outcome 7 Aerobic fitness; short term.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 1 Activity: gross motor function, children and adolescents; short term.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 2 Activity: gross motor function, children and adolescents; intermediate term.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 3 Activity: gait speed, children and adolescents; short term.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 4 Activity: gait speed, children and adolescents; intermediate term.
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 5 Activity: gait speed, adults; short term.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 6 Activity: gross motor function, adults; short term.
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 7 Activity: walking endurance, adults; short term.
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 8 Participation, children and adolescents; short term.
2.9
2.9. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 9 Participation, children and adolescents; intermediate term.
2.10
2.10. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 10 Quality of life (parent‐reported), children and adolescents; short term.
2.11
2.11. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 11 Quality of life (child‐reported), children and adolescents; short term.
2.12
2.12. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 12 Muscle strength, children and adolescents; short term.
2.13
2.13. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 13 Muscle strength, children and adolescents; intermediate term.
2.14
2.14. Analysis
Comparison 2 Resistance training versus usual care, Outcome 14 Muscle strength, adults; short term.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 1 Activity: gross motor function; short term.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 2 Activity: gait speed; short term.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 3 Activity: walking endurance; short term.
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 4 Participation; short term.
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 5 Participation; intermediate term.
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 6 Aerobic fitness; short term.
3.7
3.7. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 7 Muscle strength; short term.
3.8
3.8. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 8 Anaerobic fitness; short term.
3.9
3.9. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 9 Aerobic fitness; intermediate term.
3.10
3.10. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 10 Anaerobic fitness; intermediate term.
3.11
3.11. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 11 Muscle strength; intermediate term.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Resistance training versus aerobic exercise, Outcome 1 Activity: gross motor function; short term.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Resistance training versus aerobic exercise, Outcome 2 Activity: gait speed; short term.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Resistance training versus aerobic exercise, Outcome 3 Activity: gait speed; intermediate term.
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4 Resistance training versus aerobic exercise, Outcome 4 Activity: gross motor function; intermediate term.
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4 Resistance training versus aerobic exercise, Outcome 5 Muscle strength; short term.
4.6
4.6. Analysis
Comparison 4 Resistance training versus aerobic exercise, Outcome 6 Muscle strength; intermediate term.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Aerobic exercise and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 1 Activity: gross motor function; short term.
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5 Aerobic exercise and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 2 Activity: gross motor function, intermediate term.
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5 Aerobic exercise and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 3 Activity: gait speed; short term.
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5 Aerobic exercise and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 4 Activity: walking endurance; short term.
5.5
5.5. Analysis
Comparison 5 Aerobic exercise and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 5 Aerobic fitness; short term.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 Resistance training and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 1 Activity: gross motor function; short term.
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 Resistance training and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 2 Activity: gross motor function; intermediate term.
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6 Resistance training and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 3 Activity: gait speed; short term.
6.4
6.4. Analysis
Comparison 6 Resistance training and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 4 Participation; short term.
6.5
6.5. Analysis
Comparison 6 Resistance training and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 5 Participation; intermediate term.
6.6
6.6. Analysis
Comparison 6 Resistance training and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 6 Muscle strength; short term.
6.7
6.7. Analysis
Comparison 6 Resistance training and mixed training versus usual care, Outcome 7 Muscle strength; intermediate term.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Comment in

References

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References to studies excluded from this review

Abd El‐Kafy 2014 {published data only}
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Batista 2010 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Batista KG, Lopes PO, Serradilha SM, Souza GAF, Bella GP, Souza RCT. Benefits of cardiorespiratory training in children or adolescents with cerebral palsy [Benefícios do condicionamento cardiorrespiratório em crianças ou adolescentes com paralisia cerebral]. Fisioterapia em Movimento 2010;23(2):201‐9. [DOI: 10.1590/S0103-51502010000200004] - DOI
Batra 2011 {published data only}
    1. Batra M, Sharma VP, Malik GK, Batra V, Agarwal GG. Intervention based on dynamics of postural control in children with cerebral palsy ‐‐ an integral approach. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy 2011;5(3):68‐73.
Benda 2003 {published data only}
    1. Benda W, McGibbon NH, Grant KL. Improvements in muscle symmetry in children with cerebral palsy after equine‐assisted therapy. The Journal of Alternative and Complemenary Medicine 2003;9(6):817‐25. [DOI: 10.1089/107555303771952163; PUBMED: 14736353] - DOI - PubMed
Blundell 2003 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Blundell SW, Shepherd RB, Dean CM, Adams RD, Cahill BM. Functional strength training in cerebral palsy: a pilot study of a group circuit training class for children aged 4‐8 years. Clinical Rehabilitation 2003;17(1):48‐57. [DOI: 10.1191/0269215503cr584oa; PUBMED: 12617379] - DOI - PubMed
Bohm 2015 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Bohm H, Rammelmayr MK, Doderlein L. Effects of climbing therapy on gait function in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy ‐ a randomized, controlled crossover trial. European Journal of Physiotherapy 2015;17(1):1‐8. [DOI: 10.3109/21679169.2014.955525] - DOI
Boyd 2010 {published data only}
    1. Boyd R, Sakzewski L, Ziviani J, Abbott DF, Badawy R, Gilmore R, et al. INCITE: a randomised trial comparing constraint induced movement therapy and bimanual training in children with congenital hemiplegia. BMC Neurology 2010;10(4):15. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2377-10-4; PMC2832893; PUBMED: 20064275] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Brown 2010 {published data only}
    1. Brown SH, Lewis CA, McCarthy JM, Doyle ST, Hurvitz EA. The effects of Internet‐based home training on upper limb function in adults with cerebral palsy. Neurorehabilitation and neural repair 2010;24(6):575‐83. [DOI: 10.1177/1545968310361956; PUBMED: 20581338] - DOI - PubMed
Capio 2015 {published data only}
    1. Capio CM, Sit CH, Eguia KF, Abernethy B, Masters RS. Fundamental movement skills training to promote physical activity in children with and without disability: a pilot study. Journal of Sport and Health Science 2015;4(3):235‐43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2014.08.001] - DOI
Chang 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Chang YJ, Han WY, Tsai YC. A Kinect‐based upper limb rehabilitation system to assist people with cerebral palsy. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2013;34(11):3654‐9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2013.08.021] - DOI - PubMed
Chen 2015 {published data only}
    1. Chen Y, Garcia‐Vergara S, Howard AM. Effect of a home‐based virtual reality intervention for children with cerebral palsy using Super Pop VR evaluation metrics: a feasibility study. Rehabilitation Research and Practice 2015;2015:9. [DOI: 10.1155/2015/812348] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Cherng 2004 {published data only}
    1. Cherng R, Liao H, Leung HW, Hwang A. The effectiveness of therapeutic horseback riding in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 2004;21(2):103‐21. [DOI: 10.1123/apaq.21.2.103] - DOI
Chiu 2014 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Chiu HC, Ada L, Lee HM. Upper limb training using Wii Sports Resort for children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy: a randomized, single‐blind trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2014;28(10):1015‐24. [DOI: 10.1177/0269215514533709; PUBMED: 24849793] - DOI - PubMed
Choi 2011 {published data only}
    1. Choi M, Lee D, Ro H. Effect of task‐oriented training and neurodevelopmental treatment on the sitting posture in children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2011;23(2):323‐5. [DOI: 10.1589/jpts.23.323] - DOI
Davis 2009 {published data only}
    1. Davis E, Davies B, Wolfe R, Raadsveld R, Heine B, Thomason P, et al. A randomized controlled trial of the impact of therapeutic horse riding on the quality of life, health, and function of children with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2009;51(2):111‐9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.03245.x; PUBMED: 19191844] - DOI - PubMed
Declerck 2016 {published data only}
    1. Declerck M, Verheul M, Daly D, Sanders R. Benefits and enjoyment of a swimming intervention for youth with cerebral palsy: an RCT study. Pediatric Physical Therapy 2016;28(2):162‐9. [DOI: 10.1097/PEP.0000000000000235; PUBMED: 26871379] - DOI - PubMed
Dimitrijević 2012 {published data only}
    1. Dimitrijević L, Aleksandrović M, Madić D, Okičić T, Radovanović D, Daly D. The effect of aquatic intervention on the gross motor function and aquatic skills in children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Human Kinetics 2012;32:167‐74. [DOI: 10.2478/v10078-012-0033-5; PMC3590865] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Dodd 2007 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Dodd KJ, Foley S. Partial body‐weight‐supported treadmill training can improve walking in children with cerebral palsy: a clinical controlled trial. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2007;49(2):101‐5. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00101.x; PUBMED: 17253995] - DOI - PubMed
El‐Basatiny 2015 {published data only}
    1. El‐Basatiny HMY, Abdel‐Aziem AA. Effect of backward walking training on postural balance in children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy: a randomized controlled study [with consumer summary]. Clinical Rehabilitation 2015;29(5):457‐67. - PubMed
Fedrizzi 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Fedrizzi E, Rosa‐Rizzotto M, Turconi AC, Pagliano E, Fazzi E, Pozza LV, et al. Unimanual and bimanual intensive training in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy and persistence in time of hand function improvement: 6‐month follow‐up results of a multisite clinical trial. Journal of Child Neurology 2013;28(2):161‐75. [DOI: 10.1177/0883073812443004; PUBMED: 22580904] - DOI - PubMed
Fernandes 2008 {published data only}
    1. Fernandes LC, Chitra J, Metgud D, Khatri SM. Effectiveness of artificial horse riding on postural control in spastic diplegics ‐ RCT. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy 2008;2(4):36‐40.
Franki 2014 {published data only}
    1. Franki I, Broeck C, Cat J, Tijhuis W, Molenaers G, Vanderstraeten G, et al. A randomized, single‐blind cross‐over design evaluating the effectiveness of an individually defined, targeted physical therapy approach in treatment of children with cerebral palsy. Clinical Rehabilitation 2014;28(10):1039‐52. [DOI: 10.1177/0269215514544984; PUBMED: 25147350] - DOI - PubMed
Gillaux 2015 {published data only}
    1. Gillaux M, Renders A, Dispa D, Holvoet D, Sapin J, Dehez B, et al. Upper limb robot‐assisted therapy in cerebral palsy: a single‐blind randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 2015;29(2):183‐92. [DOI: 10.1177/1545968314541172; PUBMED: 25015650] - DOI - PubMed
Gordon 2007 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Gordon AM, Schneider JA, Chinnan A, Charles JR. Efficacy of a hand‐arm bimanual intensive therapy (HABIT) in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy: a randomized control trial. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2007;49(11):830‐8. [10.1111/j.1469‐8749.2007.00830.x; PUBMED: 17979861] - PubMed
Grecco 2013a {published and unpublished data}
    1. Grecco LA, Zanon N, Sampaio LM, Oliveira CS. A comparison of treadmill training and overground walking in ambulant children with cerebral palsy: randomized controlled clinical trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2013;27(8):686‐96. [DOI: 10.1177/0269215513476721; PUBMED: 23503736] - DOI - PubMed
Grecco 2013b {published and unpublished data}
    1. Grecco LA, Tomita SM, Christovão TL, Pasini H, Sampaio LM, Oliveira CS. Effect of treadmill gait training on static and functional balance in children with cerebral palsy: a randomized controlled trial. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy/Revista Brasileira de Fisioterapia 2013;17(1):17‐23. [PUBMED: 23538455] - PubMed
Green 2013 {published data only}
    1. Green D, Schertz M, Gordon AM, Moore A, Schejter Margalit T, Farquharson Y, et al. A multi‐site study of functional outcomes following a themed approach to hand‐arm bimanual intensive therapy for children with hemiplegia. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2013;55(6):527‐33. [DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.12113; PUBMED: 23458353] - DOI - PubMed
Hamah 2015 {published data only}
    1. Hamah E. Effect of a new physical therapy concept on dynamic balance in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy. The Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics 2015;16(1):77‐83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmhg.2014.09.001] - DOI
Hammond 2014 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Hammond J, Jones V, Hill EL, Green D, Male I. An investigation of the impact of regular use of the Wii Fit to improve motor and psychosocial outcomes in children with movement difficulties: a pilot study. Child Care Health and Development 2014;40(2):165‐75. [DOI: 10.1111/cch.12029; PUBMED: 23363371] - DOI - PubMed
Harbourne 2010 {published data only}
    1. Harbourne RT, Willett S, Kyvelidou A, Deffeyes J, Stergiou N. A comparison of interventions for children with cerebral palsy to improve sitting postural control: a clinical trial. Physical Therapy 2010;90(12):1881‐98. [DOI: 10.2522/ptj.2010132; PUBMED: 20966212] - DOI - PubMed
Herrero 2010 {published data only}
    1. Herrero P, Asensio Á, García E, Marco Á, Oliván B, Ibarz A, et al. Study of the therapeutic effects of an advanced hippotherapy simulator in children with cerebral palsy: a randomised controlled trial. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 2010;11:71. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2474-11-71; PMC2864204] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Herrero 2012 {published data only}
    1. Herrero P, Gómez‐Trullén EM, Asensio A, García E, Casas R, Monserrat E, et al. Study of the therapeutic effects of a hippotherapy simulator in children with cerebral palsy: a stratified single‐blind randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2012;26(12):1105‐13. [DOI: 10.1177/0269215512444633; PUBMED: 22610128] - DOI - PubMed
Hornyak 2008 {published data only}
    1. Hornyak JE, Hurvitz EA. Exercise training increases physical fitness for children with cerebral palsy. The Journal of Pediatrics 2008;152(5):739. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.02.022; PUBMED: 18410788] - DOI - PubMed
Hsieh 2016 {published data only}
    1. Hsieh RL, Lee WC, Lin JH. The impact of short‐term video games on performance among children with developmental delays: a randomized controlled trial. PLOS ONE 2016;11(3):e0149714. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149714; PMC4794225; PUBMED: 26983099] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Hung 2011 {published data only}
    1. Hung YC, Casertano L, Hillman A, Gordon AM. The effect of intensive bimanual training on coordination of the hands in children with congenital hemiplegia. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2011;32(6):2724‐31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2011.05.038; PUBMED: 21715141] - DOI - PubMed
Hussein 2014 {published data only}
    1. Hussein ZA, Abd‐Elwahab MS, El‐Shennawy SW. Effect of arm cycling on gait of children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. The Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics 2014;15(3):273‐9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmhg.2014.02.008] - DOI
Hutzler 1998 {published data only}
    1. Hutzler Y, Chacham A, Bergman U, Szeinberg A. Effects of a movement and swimming program on vital capacity and water orientation skills of children with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 1998;40(3):176‐81. [PUBMED: 9566654] - PubMed
Hutzler 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Hutzler Y, Lamela Rodríguez B, Mendoza LN, Díez I, Barak S. The effects of an exercise training program on hand and wrist strength, and function, and activities of daily living, in adults with severe cerebral palsy. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2013;34(12):4343‐54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2013.09.015; PUBMED: 24145046] - DOI - PubMed
Jannink 2008 {published data only}
    1. Jannink MJ, Wilden GJ, Navis DW, Visser G, Gussinklo J, Ijzerman M. A low‐cost video game applied for training of upper extremity function in children with cerebral palsy: a pilot study. CyberPsychology and Behavior 2008;11(1):27‐32. [DOI: 10.1089/cpb.2007.0014; PUBMED: 18275309] - DOI - PubMed
Jeng 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Jeng SC, Yeh KK, Liu WY, Huang WP, Chuang YF, Wong AM, et al. A physical fitness follow‐up in children with cerebral palsy receiving 12‐week individualized exercise training. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2013;34(11):4017‐24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2013.08.032; PUBMED: 24036390] - DOI - PubMed
Jones 2001 {published data only}
    1. Jones JA, Heinemann AW. Exercise & recreation for individuals with a disability: assessment and intervention. tinyurl.com/kt7dhy8 (accessed 10 April 2017).
Kandrali 2006 {published data only}
    1. Kandrali I, Katsimanis G, Christoulas K, Evaggelinou C, Aggelopoulou N. The influence of an adapted exercise program on the development of the gross motor function and performance in adolescents with spastic hemiplegia. Inquiries in Sport & Physical Education 2006;4(1):45‐56.
Kang 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kang H, Jung J, Yu J. Effects of hippotherapy on the sitting balance of children with cerebral palsy: a randomized control trial. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2012;24(9):833‐6. [DOI: 10.1589/jpts.24.833] - DOI
Katz‐Leurer 2009 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Katz‐Leurer M, Rotem H, Keren O, Meyer S. The effects of a 'home‐based' task‐oriented exercise programme on motor and balance performance in children with spastic cerebral palsy and severe traumatic brain injury. Clinical Rehabilitation 2009;23(8):714‐24. [DOI: 10.1177/0269215509335293; PUBMED: 19506005] - DOI - PubMed
Ketelaar 2001 {published data only}
    1. Ketelaar M, Vermeer A, Hart H, Petegem‐van Beek E, Helders PJM. Effects of a functional therapy program on motor abilities of children with cerebral palsy. Physical Therapy 2001;81:1534‐45. [PUBMED: 11688590] - PubMed
Kim 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kim D‐A, Lee J‐A, Hwang P‐W, Lee M‐J, Kim H‐K, Park J‐J, et al. The effect of comprehensive hand repetitive intensive strength training (CHRIST) using motion analysis in children with cerebral palsy. Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine 2012;36(1):39‐46. [10.5535/arm.2012.36.1.39; PMC3309323] - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2015 {published data only}
    1. Kim JH, Seo HJ. Effects of trunk‐hip strengthening on standing in children with spastic diplegia: a comparative pilot study. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2015;27(5):1337‐40. [DOI: 10.1589/jpts.27.1337; PMC4483392; PUBMED: 26157214] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Kumar 2010 {published data only}
    1. Kumar A, Kabeer S, Aikat R, Juneja M. Effect of strength training of muscles of lower limb of young children with cerebral palsy on gross motor function. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy 2010;4(1):4‐7.
Kumar 2013 {published data only}
    1. Kumar C, Kataria S. Effectiveness of task oriented circuit training on functional mobility and balance in cerebral palsy. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy or Occupational Therapy 2013;7(4):23‐28. [DOI: 10.5958/j.0973-5674.7.4.116] - DOI
Lai 2015 {published data only}
    1. Lai CJ, Liu WY, Yang TF, Chen CL, Wu CY, Chan RC. Pediatric aquatic therapy on motor function and enjoyment in children diagnosed with cerebral palsy of various motor severities. Journal of Child Neurology 2015;30(2):200‐208. [DOI: 10.1177/0883073814535491; PUBMED: 24907137] - DOI - PubMed
Lee 2014a {published data only}
    1. Lee CW, Kim SG, Na SS. The effects of hippotherapy and a horse riding simulator on the balance of children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2014;26(3):423‐5. [DOI: 10.1589/jpts.26.423; PMC3976017] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Lee 2014b {published data only}
    1. Lee DR, Kim YH, Kim DA, Lee JA, Hwang PW, Lee MJ, et al. Innovative strength training‐induced neuroplasticity and increased muscle size and strength in children with spastic cerebral palsy: an experimenter‐blind case study‐‐three‐month follow‐up. NeuroRehabilitation 2014;35(1):131‐6. [DOI: 10.3233/NRE-131036; PUBMED: 24419014] - DOI - PubMed
Lowe 2015 {published data only}
    1. Lowe L, McMillan AG, Yates C. Body weight support treadmill training for children with developmental delay who are ambulatory. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2015;27(4):386‐94. [DOI: 10.1097/PEP.0000000000000172; PMC4580974; PUBMED: 26397083] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Maher 2010 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Maher CA, Williams MT, Olds T, Lane AE. An internet‐based physical activity intervention for adolescents with cerebral palsy: a randomized controlled trial. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2010;52(5):448‐55. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03609.x; PUBMED: 20132138] - DOI - PubMed
McGibbon 2009 {published data only}
    1. McGibbon NH, Benda W, Duncan BR, Silkwood‐Sherer D. Immediate and long‐term effects of hippotherapy on symmetry of adductor muscle activity and functional ability in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Archives Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2009;90(6):966‐74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2009.01.011; PUBMED: 19480872] - DOI - PubMed
Mehta 2010 {published data only}
    1. Mehta P, Singh J, Vij J. Efficacy of intensive neurodevelopment therapy versus conventional physiotherapy in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy 2010;4(4):96‐101.
Moreau 2013 {published data only}
    1. Moreau NG, Holthaus K, Marlow N. Differential adaptations of muscle architecture to high velocity versus traditional strength training in cerebral palsy. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 2013;27(4):325‐34. [DOI: 10.1177/1545968312469834; PUBMED: 23292847] - DOI - PubMed
Nsenga Leunkeu 2012 {published data only}
    1. Nsenga Leunkeu A, Shephard RJ, Ahmaidi S. Six‐minute walk test in children with cerebral palsy gross motor function classification system levels I and II: reproducibility, validity, and training effects. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2012;93(12):2333‐9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2012.06.005; PUBMED: 22721868] - DOI - PubMed
Nsenga Leunkeu 2013 {published data only}
    1. Nsenga Leunkeu A, Shephard RJ, Ahmaidi S. Aerobic training in children with cerebral palsy. International Journal of Sports Medicine 2013;34(6):533‐7. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0032-1321803; PUBMED: 23184482] - DOI - PubMed
Olama 2012 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Olama KA, Hegazy FA, Thabt NS. Combined effects of myofeedback and isokinetic training on hand function in spastic hemiplegic children. Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics 2012;13(2):183‐8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmhg.2012.03.005] - DOI
Ozer 2007 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Ozer D, Nalbant S, Aktop A, Duman O, Keles I, Toraman NF. Swimming training program for children with cerebral palsy: body perceptions, problem behaviour, and competence. Perceptual & Motor Skills 2007;105(3):777‐87. [DOI: 10.2466/pms.105.3.777-787; PUBMED: 18229533] - DOI - PubMed
Park 2014a {published data only}
    1. Park ES, Rha DW, Shin JS, Kim S, Jung S. Effects of hippotherapy on gross motor function and functional performance of children with cerebral palsy. Yonsei Medical Journal 2014;55(6):1736‐42. [DOI: 10.3349/ymj.2014.55.6.1736; PMC4205717; PUBMED: 25323914] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Patikas 2006 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Patikas D, Wolf SI, Armbrust P, Mund K, Schuster W, Dreher T, et al. Effects of a postoperative resistive exercise program on the knee extension and flexion torque in children with cerebral palsy: a randomized clinical trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2006;87(9):1161‐9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2006.05.014; PUBMED: 16935049] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Patikas D, Wolf SI, Mund K, Armbrust P, Schuster W, Döderlein L. Effects of a postoperative strength‐training program on the walking ability of children with cerebral palsy: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2006;87(5):619‐26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2006.01.023; PUBMED: 16635623] - DOI - PubMed
Preston 2015 {published data only}
    1. Preston N, Weightman A, Gallagher J, Levesley M, Mon‐Williams M, Clarke M, et al. A pilot single‐blind multicentre randomized controlled trial to evaluate the potential benefits of computer‐assisted arm rehabilitation gaming technology on the arm function of children with spastic cerebral palsy. Clinical Rehabilitation 2015;30(10):1004‐15. [DOI: 10.1177/0269215515604699; PUBMED: 26370148] - DOI - PubMed
Reid 2006 {published data only}
    1. Reid D, Campbell K. The use of virtual reality with children with cerebral palsy: a pilot randomized trial. Therapeutic Recreation Journal 2006;40(4):255‐68.
Rimmer 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Rimmer JH, Wang E, Pellegrini CA, Lullo C, Gerber BS. Telehealth weight management intervention for adults with physical disabilities. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 2013;92(12):1084‐94. [DOI: 10.1097/PHM.0b013e31829e780e; PUBMED: 24257266] - DOI - PubMed
Roberti 2011 {published data only}
    1. Roberti L, Biagini E. Effectiveness of static weight‐bearing exercises in children with cerebral palsy [Efficacia degli esercizi di carico statico nei bambini affetti da paralisi cerebrale infantile]. Scienza Riabilitativa Associazione Italiana Fisioterapisti 2011; Vol. 13, issue 1:1‐14.
Sakzewski 2011a {published data only}
    1. Sakzewski L, Carlon S, Shields N, Ziviani J, Ware RS, Boyd RN. Impact of intensive upper limb rehabilitation on quality of life: a randomized trial in children with unilateral cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2012;54(5):415‐23. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04272.x; PUBMED: 22429002] - DOI - PubMed
Sakzewski 2011b {published data only}
    1. Sakzewski L, Ziviani J, Abbott DF, Macdonell RA, Jackson GD, Boyd RN. Equivalent retention of gains at 1 year after training with constraint‐induced or bimanual therapy in children with unilateral cerebral palsy. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 2011;25(7):664‐71. [DOI: 10.1177/1545968311400093; PUBMED: 21427273] - DOI - PubMed
Sakzewski 2012 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Sakzewski L, Ziviani J, Abbott DF, Macdonell RA, Jackson GD, Boyd RN. Participation outcomes in a randomized trial of 2 models of upper‐limb rehabilitation for children with congenital hemiplegia. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2011;92(4):531‐9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2010.11.022; PUBMED: 21440700] - DOI - PubMed
Salem 2009 {published data only}
    1. Salem Y, Godwin EM. Effects of task‐oriented training on mobility function in children with cerebral palsy. Neurorehabilitation 2009;24(4):307‐13. [DOI: 10.3233/NRE-2009-0483; PUBMED: 19597267] - DOI - PubMed
Salem 2012 {published data only}
    1. Salem Y, Gropack SJ, Coffin D, Godwin EM. Effectiveness of a low‐cost virtual reality system for children with developmental delay: a preliminary randomised single‐blind controlled trial. Physiotherapy 2012;98(3):189‐95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physio.2012.06.003; PUBMED: 22898574] - DOI - PubMed
Schroeder 2014 {published data only}
    1. Schroeder AS, Homburg M, Warken B, Auffermann H, Koerte I, Berweck S, et al. Prospective controlled cohort study to evaluate changes of function, activity and participation in patients with bilateral spastic cerebral palsy after Robot‐enhanced repetitive treadmill therapy. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology 2014;18(4):502‐10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2014.04.012; PUBMED: 24821475] - DOI - PubMed
Sherief AEAA 2015 {published data only}
    1. Sherief AEAA, Abo Gazya AA, Abd el Gafaar MA. Integrated effect of treadmill training combined with dynamic ankle foot orthosis on balance in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics 2015;16(2):173‐9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmhg.2014.11.002] - DOI
Silva e Borges 2011 {published data only}
    1. Silva e Borges MB, Werneck MJ, Silva Mde L, Gandolfi L, Pratesi R. Therapeutic effects of a horse riding simulator in children with cerebral palsy [Efeitos terapêuticos de um simulador de equitação em crianças portadoras de paralisia cerebral]. Arquivos de Neuro‐Psiquiatria 2011;69(5):799‐804. [PUBMED: 22042184] - PubMed
Slaman 2014 {published data only}
    1. Slaman J, Roebroeck M, Dallmijer A, Twisk J, Stam H, Berg‐Emons R, Learn 2 Move Research Group. Can a lifestyle intervention programme improve physical behaviour among adolescents and young adults with spastic cerebral palsy? A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2015;57(2):159‐66. [DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.12602; PUBMED: 25303096] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Slaman J, Roebroeck M, Slot W, Twisk J, Wensink A, Stam H, et al. Learn 2 Move Research Group. Can a lifestyle intervention improve physical fitness in adolescents and young adults with spastic cerebral palsy? A randomized controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2014;95(9):1646‐55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2014.05.011; PUBMED: 25067790] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Slaman J, Berg‐Emons HJ, Meeteren J, Twisk J, Markus F, Stam HJ, et al. A lifestyle intervention improves fatigue, mental health and social support among adolescents and young adults with cerebral palsy: focus on mediating effects. Clinical Rehabilitation 2015;29(7):717‐27. [DOI: 10.1177/0269215514555136; PUBMED: 25352613] - DOI - PubMed
Sorsdahl 2010 {published data only}
    1. Sorsdahl AB, Moe‐Nilssen R, Kaale HK, Rieber J, Strand LI. Change in basic motor abilities, quality of movement and everyday activities following intensive, goal‐directed, activity‐focused physiotherapy in a group setting for children with cerebral palsy. BMC Pediatrics 2010;10:26‐36. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-2431-10-26; PMC2878295; PUBMED: 20423507] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Speyer 2010 {published data only}
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Stackhouse 2007 {published data only}
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References to studies awaiting assessment

Carlon 2014 {published data only}
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References to ongoing studies

Gillett 2015 {published data only}
    1. Gillett JG, Lichtwark GA, Boyd RN, Barber LA. FAST CP: protocol of a randomised controlled trial of the efficacy of a 12‐week combined Functional Anaerobic and Strength Training programme on muscle properties and mechanical gait deficiencies in adolescents and young adults with spastic‐type cerebral palsy. BMJ Open 2015;5(6):e008059. [DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008059; PMC4486965; PUBMED: 26116614] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
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NCT02754128 {published data only}
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NCT02766491 {published data only}
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RBR‐5rh6cg {published data only}
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