How holobionts get sick-toward a unifying scheme of disease

Abstract

All humans, animals, and plants are holobionts. Holobionts comprise the host and a myriad of interacting microorganisms-the microbiota. The hologenome encompasses the genome of the host plus the composite of all microbial genomes (the microbiome). In health, there is a fine-tuned and resilient equilibrium within the members of the microbiota and between them and the host. This relative stability is maintained by a high level of microbial diversity, a delicate bio-geographic distribution of microorganisms, and a sophisticated and intricate molecular crosstalk among the multiple components of the holobiont. Pathobionts are temporarily benign microbes with the potential, under modified ecosystem conditions, to become key players in disease. Pathobionts may be endogenous, living for prolonged periods of time inside or on the host, or exogenous, invading the host during opportunistic situations. In both cases, the end result is the transformation of the beneficial microbiome into a health-perturbing pathobiome. We hypothesize that probably all diseases of holobionts, acute or chronic, infectious or non-infectious, and regional or systemic, are characterized by a perturbation of the healthy microbiome into a diseased pathobiome.

Keywords: Disease; Microbiome; Microbiota; Pathobiome; Pathobiont.

Fig. 1

What is a good microbiome? A typical example of the tripartite interaction between a common virus, the host, and the microbiota. a Some strains of the influenza virus cause more severe disease in obese persons or mice as well as in third-trimester pregnant woman. This occurrence correlates with a disturbed gut microbiota. b In addition, suboptimal responses to the flu vaccine are found in these populations