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Meta-Analysis
. 2017 Jul 29;7(7):CD009242.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009242.pub3.

Treadmill interventions in children under six years of age at risk of neuromotor delay

Marta Valentín-Gudiol  1 , Katrin Mattern-Baxter, Montserrat Girabent-Farrés, Caritat Bagur-Calafat, Mijna Hadders-Algra, Rosa Maria Angulo-Barroso
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Treadmill interventions in children under six years of age at risk of neuromotor delay

Marta Valentín-Gudiol et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Delayed motor development may occur in children with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, general developmental delay or children born preterm. It limits the child's exploration of the environment and can hinder cognitive and social-emotional development. Literature suggests that task-specific training, such as locomotor treadmill training, facilitates motor development.

Objectives: To assess the effectiveness of treadmill interventions on locomotor development in children with delayed ambulation or in pre-ambulatory children (or both), who are under six years of age and who are at risk for neuromotor delay.

Search methods: In May 2017, we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, six other databases and a number of trials registers. We also searched the reference lists of relevant studies and systematic reviews.

Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs that evaluated the effect of treadmill intervention in the target population.

Data collection and analysis: Four authors independently extracted the data. Outcome parameters were structured according to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health model.

Main results: This is an update of a Cochrane review from 2011, which included five trials. This update includes seven studies on treadmill intervention in 175 children: 104 were allocated to treadmill groups, and 71 were controls. The studies varied in population (children with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, developmental delay or at moderate risk for neuromotor delay); comparison type (treadmill versus no treadmill; treadmill with versus without orthoses; high- versus low-intensity training); study duration, and assessed outcomes. Due to the diversity of the studies, only data from five studies were used in meta-analyses for five outcomes: age of independent walking onset, overall gross motor function, gross motor function related to standing and walking, and gait velocity. GRADE assessments of quality of the evidence ranged from high to very low.The effects of treadmill intervention on independent walking onset compared to no treadmill intervention was population dependent, but showed no overall effect (mean difference (MD) -2.08, 95% confidence intervals (CI) -5.38 to 1.22, 2 studies, 58 children; moderate-quality evidence): 30 children with Down syndrome benefited from treadmill training (MD -4.00, 95% CI -6.96 to -1.04), but 28 children at moderate risk of developmental delay did not (MD -0.60, 95% CI -2.34 to 1.14). We found no evidence regarding walking onset in two studies that compared treadmill intervention with and without orthotics in 17 children (MD 0.10, 95% CI -5.96 to 6.16), and high- versus low-intensity treadmill interventions in 30 children with Down syndrome (MD -2.13, 95% -4.96 to 0.70).Treadmill intervention did not improve overall gross motor function (MD 0.88, 95% CI -4.54 to 6.30, 2 studies, 36 children; moderate-quality evidence) or gross motor skills related to standing (MD 5.41, 95% CI -1.64 to 12.43, 2 studies, 32 children; low-quality evidence), and had a negligible improvement in gross motor skills related to walking (MD 4.51, 95% CI 0.29 to 8.73, 2 studies, 32 children; low-quality evidence). It led to improved walking skills in 20 ambulatory children with developmental delay (MD 7.60, 95% CI 0.88 to 14.32, 1 study) and favourable gross motor skills in 12 children with cerebral palsy (MD 8.00, 95% CI 3.18 to 12.82). A study which compared treadmill intervention with and without orthotics in 17 children with Down syndrome suggested that adding orthotics might hinder overall gross motor progress (MD -8.40, 95% CI -14.55 to -2.25).Overall, treadmill intervention showed a very small increase in walking speed compared to no treadmill intervention (MD 0.23, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.37, 2 studies, 32 children; high-quality evidence). Treadmill intervention increased walking speed in 20 ambulatory children with developmental delay (MD 0.25, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.42), but not in 12 children with cerebral palsy (MD 0.18, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.45).

Authors' conclusions: This update of the review from 2011 provides additional evidence of the efficacy of treadmill intervention for certain groups of children up to six years of age, but power to find significant results still remains limited. The current findings indicate that treadmill intervention may accelerate the development of independent walking in children with Down syndrome and may accelerate motor skill attainment in children with cerebral palsy and general developmental delay. Future research should first confirm these findings with larger and better designed studies, especially for infants with cerebral palsy and developmental delay. Once efficacy is established, research should examine the optimal dosage of treadmill intervention in these populations.

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Conflict of interest statement

Marta Valentin Gudiol is an author on Angulo‐Barroso 2013 and did not extract data from this study. Katrin Mattern‐Baxter (KMB) is an author on Mattern‐Baxter 2013 and was not involved in extracting data from this study. KMB is employed as an Associate Professor at California State University, Sacramento, and is paid as a Consultant for local school‐based services for children with developmental disability and as a Physical Therapist at Physical Edge. KMB and her institution receive funds from the Thrasher Fund grant for an unrelated project. KMB received fees from Kaiser Community Benefit grants to develop continuing education courses for physical therapists in 2013 and 2014. Classes were held free for physical therapists. KMB received travel and accommodation expenses from The Douglas Education Service District, Oregon, to hold a continuing education class at the Therapy in Educational Settings conference in Oregon in 2014. KMB presented an educational session at the American Physical Therapy Association’s (APTA) Combined Sections Meeting in 2015 and 2016, and KMB's expenses were covered by the APTA. Montserat Girabent Farrés ‐ none known. Caritat Bagur‐Calafat ‐ none known. Mijna Hadders‐Algra (MHA) is employed as a Professor of developmental neurology and receives payment for lectures carried out across the world on the subject. MHA's institution receives grants for work on early intervention. MHA received royalties for two books at Mac Keith Press ('Postural control: a key issue in developmental disorders' and 'The examination of the child with minor neurological dysfunction'), and one Dutch book on the general principles of infant motor development. MHA declares that none of these books address the issue of intervention by means of treadmill locomotion. Rosa Maria Angulo‐Barroso is an author on the Angulo‐Barroso 2013, Ulrich 2001 and Ulrich 2008 studies, and was not involved in extracting data from these studies.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study. + = low risk, ‐ = high risk, ? = unclear risk
4
4
Forest plot of comparison: 1 No Treadmill vs Treadmill: Walking independently (months).
5
5
Forest plot of comparison: 1 Treadmill vs No Treadmill, outcome: 1.20 Age of onset of walking with assistance [days in study].
6
6
Forest plot of comparison: 1 No Treadmill vs Treadmill: Gross motor function (GMFM as %).
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 1 Step frequency (16 months): Risk of developmental delay (% alternate steps).
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 2 Step quality (11 months): Risk of developmental delay (% toe contact).
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 3 Step quality (16 months): Risk of developmental delay [% toe contact].
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 4 Age of onset of independent walking.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 5 Age of onset of walking with assistance (days in study).
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 6 Gross motor function measure (GMFM).
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 7 Gross motor function related to standing (GMFM) ‐ Dimension D.
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 8 Gross motor function related to walking, running and jumping (GMFM) ‐ Dimension E.
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 9 Peabody Developmental Motor Scales ‐ 2: Spastic cerebral palsy.
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 10 Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory ‐ Mobility Scale scores: Spastic cerebral palsy.
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 11 Other gait parameters ‐ velocity.
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 12 Other gait parameters ‐ velocity (follow‐up when walking independently): Risk of developmental delay.
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 13 Other gait parameters ‐ step length: Spastic cerebral palsy.
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 14 Other gait parameters ‐ step length (follow‐up when walking independently): Risk of developmental delay.
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 15 Other gait parameters ‐ gait double‐limb support: Spastic cerebral palsy.
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1 Treadmill versus no treadmill, Outcome 16 Other gait parameters ‐ gait double‐limb support (follow‐up when walking independently): Risk of developmental delay.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Treadmill without orthoses versus treadmill with orthoses, Outcome 1 Walking independently (1‐month follow‐up): Down syndrome.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Treadmill without orthoses versus treadmill with orthoses, Outcome 2 Gross motor function (GMFM 1‐month follow‐up): Down syndrome.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 1 Step frequency: Down syndrome.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 2 Age of onset of independent walking: Down syndrome.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 3 Age of onset of walking with assistance: Down syndrome.
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 4 Other gait parameters ‐ velocity (follow‐up visit 1): Down syndrome.
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 5 Other gait parameters ‐ velocity (follow‐up visit 2): Down syndrome.
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 6 Other gait parameters ‐ velocity (follow‐up visit 3): Down syndrome.
3.7
3.7. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 7 Other gait parameters ‐ velocity (follow‐up visit 4): Down syndrome.
3.8
3.8. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 8 Other gait parameters ‐ gait double‐limb support (follow‐up visit 1): Down syndrome.
3.9
3.9. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 9 Other gait parameters ‐ gait double‐limb support (follow‐up visit 2): Down syndrome.
3.10
3.10. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 10 Other gait parameters ‐ gait double‐limb support (follow‐up visit 3): Down syndrome.
3.11
3.11. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 11 Other gait parameters ‐ gait double‐limb support (follow‐up visit 4): Down syndrome.
3.12
3.12. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 12 Other gait parameters ‐ gait ankle plantar flexion (follow‐up visit 1): Down syndrome.
3.13
3.13. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 13 Other gait parameters ‐ gait ankle plantar flexion (follow‐up visit 2): Down syndrome.
3.14
3.14. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 14 Other gait parameters ‐ gait ankle plantar flexion (follow‐up visit 3): Down syndrome.
3.15
3.15. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 15 Other gait parameters ‐ gait ankle plantar flexion (follow‐up visit 4): Down syndrome.
3.16
3.16. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 16 Other gait parameters ‐ step width (follow‐up): Down syndrome.
3.17
3.17. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 17 Other gait parameters ‐ step length (follow‐up): Down syndrome.
3.18
3.18. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 18 Other gait parameters ‐ toe‐off (follow‐up): Down syndrome.
3.19
3.19. Analysis
Comparison 3 High‐intensity treadmill versus low‐intensity treadmill, Outcome 19 Other gait parameters ‐ gait ankle dorsiflexion (follow‐up): Down syndrome.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

Angulo‐Barroso 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Angulo‐Barroso RM. Walking patterns in infants at moderate risk for neuromotor disabilities with or without treadmill training [personal communication]. Email to: M Valentín‐Gudiol 20 July 2011.
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Cherng 2007 {published data only}
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Looper 2010 {published data only}
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Lowe 2015 {published data only}
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Mattern‐Baxter 2013 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Mattern‐Baxter K, McNeil S, Mansoor JK. Effects of home‐based locomotor treadmill training on gross motor function in young children with cerebral palsy: a quasi‐randomized controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2013;94(11):2061‐7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2013.05.012; PUBMED: 23747646] - DOI - PubMed
Ulrich 2001 {published data only}
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Ulrich 2008 {published data only}
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References to studies excluded from this review

Borggraefe 2007 {published data only}
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Borggraefe 2010 {published data only}
    1. Borggraefe I, Kiwull L, Schaefer JS, Koerte I, Blaschek A, Meyer‐Heim A, et al. Sustainability of motor performance after robotic‐assisted treadmill therapy in children: an open, non‐randomized baseline‐treatment study. European Journal of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine 2010;46(2):125‐31. [PUBMED: 20485217] - PubMed
Campbell 2012 {published data only}
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Christensen 2014 {published data only}
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Dodd 2007 {published data only}
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Duarte 2014 {published data only}
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El‐Shamy 2017 {published data only}
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Grecco 2013a {published data only}
    1. Grecco LA, Freitas TB, Satie J, Bagne E, Oliveira CS, Souza DR. Treadmill training following orthopedic surgery in lower limbs of children with cerebral palsy. Pediatric Physical Therapy 2013;25(2):187‐92. [DOI: 10.1097/PEP.0b013e3182888495; PUBMED: 23542199] - DOI - PubMed
Grecco 2013b {published data only}
    1. Grecco LAC, Tomita SM, Christovão TC, Pasini H, Sampaio LM, Oliveira CS. Effect of treadmill gait training on static and functional balance in children with cerebral palsy: a randomized controlled trial. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy 2013;17(1):17‐23. [PUBMED: 23538455] - PubMed
Grecco 2013c {published data only}
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Hilderley 2016 {published data only}
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Johnston 2011 {published data only}
    1. Johnston TE, Watson KE, Ross SA, Gates PE, Gaughan JP, Lauer RT, et al. Effects of a supported speed treadmill training exercise program on impairment and function for children with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2011;53(8):742‐50. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.03990.x; PUBMED: 21679357] - DOI - PubMed
Jung 2016 {published data only}
    1. Jung TY, Kim Y, Kelly LE, Abel MF. Biomechanical and perceived differences between overground and treadmill walking in children with cerebral palsy. Gait Posture 2016;45:1‐6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2015.12.004; PUBMED: 26979874] - DOI - PubMed
Kurz 2011 {published data only}
    1. Kurz MJ, Stuberg W, DeJong SL. Body weight supported treadmill training improves the regularity of the stepping kinematics in children with cerebral palsy. Developmental Neurorehabilitation 2011;14(2):87‐93. [DOI: 10.3109/17518423.2011.552459; PUBMED: 21410400] - DOI - PubMed
Lowe 2013 {published data only}
    1. Lowe LM. Treadmill Training With Partial Body Weight Support In Ambulatory Children With Developmental Delay [dissertation]. University of Central Arkansas, 2013.
Maltais 2003 {published data only}
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Matsuno 2010 {published data only}
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Meyer‐Heim 2007 {published data only}
    1. Meyer‐Heim A, Borggraefe I, Ammann‐Reiffer C, Berweck S, Sennhauser FH, Colombo G, et al. Feasibility of robotic‐assisted locomotor training in children with central gait impairment. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2007;49(12):900‐6. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00900.x; PUBMED: 18039236] - DOI - PubMed
Mussleman 2007 {published data only}
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Pang 2003 {published data only}
    1. Pang MYC, Lam T, Yang JF. Infants adapt their stepping to repeated trip‐inducing stimuli. Journal of Neurophysiology 2003;90(4):2731‐40. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.00407.2003; PUBMED: 12826655] - DOI - PubMed
Pantall 2011 {published data only}
    1. Pantall A, Teulier C, Smith BA, Moerchen V, Ulrich BD. Impact of enhanced sensory input on treadmill step frequency: infants born with myelomeningocele. Pediatric Physical Therapy 2011;23(1):42‐52. [DOI: 10.1097/PEP.0b013e318206eefa; PMC3461189; PUBMED: 21266940] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Phillips 2007 {published data only}
    1. Phillips JP, Sullivan KJ, Burtner PA, Caprihan A, Provost B, Bernitsky‐Beddingfield A. Ankle dorsiflexion fMRI in children with cerebral palsy undergoing intensive body‐weight‐supported treadmill training: a pilot study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2007;49(1):39‐44. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.0102a.x; PUBMED: 17209975] - DOI - PubMed
Romei 2012 {published data only}
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Sarhan 2014 {published data only}
    1. Sarhan RS, Chevidikunnan MF, Gaowgzeh RA. Locomotor treadmill training program using driven gait orthosis versus manual treadmill therapy on motor output in spastic diplegic cerebral palsy children. Nitte University Journal of Health Science 2014;4(4):10‐17.
Schindl 2000 {published data only}
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Schlittler 2011 {published data only}
    1. Schlittler CX, Lopes TF, Raniero EP, Barela JA. Treadmill training effects on walking acquisition and motor development in infants at risk of developmental delay. Revista Paulista de Pediatria 2011;29(1):91‐9. [DOI: 10.1590/S0103-05822011000100015] - DOI
Scholtes 2012 {published data only}
    1. Scholtes VA, Becher JG, Janssen‐Potten Y, Dekkers H, Smallenbroek L, Dallmeijer AJ. Effectiveness of functional progressive resistance exercise training on walking ability in children with cerebral palsy: a randomized controlled trial.. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2012;33(1):181‐8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2011.08.026; PUBMED: 22093663] - DOI - PubMed
Schroeder 2014 {published data only}
    1. Schroeder AS, Kries R, Riedel C, Homburg M, Auffermann H, Blaschek A, et al. Patient‐specific determinants of responsiveness to robot‐enhanced treadmill therapy in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2014;56(12):1172‐9. [DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.12564; PUBMED: 25154424] - DOI - PubMed
Sherief 2015 {published data only}
    1. Sherief AEAA, Abo Gazya AA, Gafaar AE. Integrated effect of treadmill training combined with dynamic ankle foot orthosis on balance in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics 2015;16(2):173‐9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmhg.2014.11.002] - DOI
Siekerman 2015 {published data only}
    1. Siekerman K, Barbu‐Roth M, Anderson DI, Donnelly A, Goffinet F, Teulier C. Treadmill stimulation improves newborn stepping. Developmental Psychobiology 2015;57(2):247‐54. [DOI: 10.1002/dev.21270; PUBMED: 25644966] - DOI - PubMed
Smania 2011 {published data only}
    1. Smania N, Bonetti P, Gandolfi M, Cosentino A, Waldner A, Hesse S, et al. Improved gait after repetitive locomotor training in children with cerebral palsy. American Journal of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation 2011;90(2):137‐49. [DOI: 10.1097/PHM.0b013e318201741e; PUBMED: 21217461] - DOI - PubMed
Su 2013 {published data only}
    1. Su IY, Chung KK, Chow DH. Treadmill training with partial body weight support compared with conventional gait training for low‐functioning children and adolescents with nonspastic cerebral palsy: a two‐period crossover study. Prosthetics & Orthotics International 2013;37(6):445‐53. [DOI: 10.1177/0309364613476532; PUBMED: 23436693] - DOI - PubMed
Teulier 2009 {published data only}
    1. Teulier C, Smith BA, Kubo M, Chang C, Moerchen V, Murazko K, et al. Stepping responses of infants with myelomeningocele when supported on a motorized treadmill. Physical Therapy 2009;89(1):60‐72. [PMC2614450] - PMC - PubMed
Willerslev‐Olsen 2014 {published data only}
    1. Willerslev‐Olsen M, Lorentzen J, Nielsen JB. Gait training reduces ankle joint stiffness and facilitates heel strike in children with cerebral palsy. NeuroRehabilitation 2014;35(4):643‐55. [DOI: 10.3233/NRE-141180; PUBMED: 25318785] - DOI - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

NCT02424526 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT02424526. Intensive home‐based treadmill training and walking attainment in young children with cerebral palsy. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02424526 (first received 16 April 2015). [NCT02424526]

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References to other published versions of this review

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