Evolution and Emergence of Pathogenic Viruses: Past, Present, and Future

Abstract

Incidences of emerging/re-emerging deadly viral infections have significantly affected human health despite extraordinary progress in the area of biomedical knowledge. The best examples are the recurring outbreaks of dengue and chikungunya fever in tropical and sub-tropical regions, the recent epidemic of Zika in the Americas and the Caribbean, and the SARS, MERS, and influenza A outbreaks across the globe. The established natural reservoirs of human viruses are mainly farm animals, and, to a lesser extent, wild animals and arthropods. The intricate "host-pathogen-environment" relationship remains the key to understanding the emergence/re-emergence of pathogenic viruses. High population density, rampant constructions, poor sanitation, changing climate, and the introduction of anthropophilic vectors create selective pressure on host-pathogen reservoirs. Nevertheless, the knowledge and understanding of such zoonoses and pathogen diversity in their known non-human reservoirs are very limited. Prevention of arboviral infections using vector control methods has not been very successful. Currently, new approaches to protect against food-borne infections, such as consuming only properly cooked meats and animal products, are the most effective control measures. Though significant progress in controlling human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis viruses has been achieved, the unpredictable nature of evolving viruses and the rare occasions of outbreaks severely hamper control and preventive modalities.

Keywords: Emerging infections; Novel viruses; Viral outbreaks; Virus evolution.

Fig. 1

A cartoon depiction of important emerging/re-emerging viral infections and their possible origins, evolutionary drivers, natural reservoirs, and risk factors. HBV, hepatitis B virus; HEV, hepatitis E virus; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; CHIKV, chikungunya virus; DENV, dengue virus; TTV, Torque Teno virus; WNV, West Nile virus; ZIKV, Zika virus.