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. 2017 Sep 19;10(1):429.
doi: 10.1186/s13071-017-2361-8.

Current status of insecticide resistance among malaria vectors in Kenya

Benyl M Ondeto  1   2 , Christopher Nyundo  3 , Luna Kamau  4 , Simon M Muriu  5 , Joseph M Mwangangi  3 , Kiambo Njagi  6 , Evan M Mathenge  7 , Horace Ochanda  8 , Charles M Mbogo  3
Affiliations

Current status of insecticide resistance among malaria vectors in Kenya

Benyl M Ondeto et al. Parasit Vectors. .

Abstract

Background: Insecticide resistance has emerged as one of the major challenges facing National Malaria Control Programmes in Africa. A well-coordinated national database on insecticide resistance (IRBase) can facilitate the development of effective strategies for managing insecticide resistance and sustaining the effectiveness of chemical-based vector control measures. The aim of this study was to assemble a database on the current status of insecticide resistance among malaria vectors in Kenya.

Methods: Data was obtained from published literature through PubMed, HINARI and Google Scholar searches and unpublished literature from government reports, research institutions reports and malaria control programme reports. Each data source was assigned a unique identification code and entered into Microsoft Excel 2010 datasheets. Base maps on the distribution of insecticide resistance and resistance mechanisms among malaria vectors in Kenya were generated using ArcGIS Desktop 10.1 (ESRI, Redlands, CA, USA).

Results: Insecticide resistance status among the major malaria vectors in Kenya was reported in all the four classes of insecticides including pyrethroids, carbamates, organochlorines and organophosphates. Resistance to pyrethroids has been detected in Anopheles gambiae (s.s.), An. arabiensis and An. funestus (s.s.) while resistance to carbamates was limited to An. gambiae (s.s.) and An. arabiensis. Resistance to the organochlorine was reported in An. gambiae (s.s.) and An. funestus (s.s.) while resistance to organophosphates was reported in An. gambiae (s.l.) only. The mechanisms of insecticide resistance among malaria vectors reported include the kdr mutations (L 1014S and L 1014F) and elevated activity in carboxylesterase, glutathione S-transferases (GST) and monooxygenases. The kdr mutations L 1014S and L 1014F were detected in An. gambiae (s.s.) and An. arabiensis populations. Elevated activity of monooxygenases has been detected in both An. arabiensis and An. gambiae (s.s.) populations while the elevated activity of carboxylesterase and GST has been detected only in An. arabiensis populations.

Conclusions: The geographical maps show the distribution of insecticide resistance and resistance mechanisms among malaria vectors in Kenya. The database generated will provide a guide to intervention policies and programmes in the fight against malaria.

Keywords: Anopheles; Insecticide resistance; Kenya; Malaria; Mechanism of resistance.

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Conflict of interest statement

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare they have no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Distribution of insecticide resistance in Anopheles species tested between 1994 and 2015. Anopheles species that were tested were mainly resistant to pyrethroids across most regions of the country. Susceptibility to organophosphates, organochlorine and carbamates in Anopheles species tested was mainly observed with a few cases of resistance reported in Kenya
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Distribution of resistance mechanisms in Anopheles species tested between 1994 and 2015. The kdr mutation L 1014S in Anopheles species tested is widespread in most regions of Kenya while kdr mutation L 1014F has only been detected in the Western region. Elevated activity of monooxygenases in Anopheles species tested is widespread in most regions of Kenya while elevated activity of carboxylesterase and glutathione S-transferases tested has only been detected in Western region
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