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. 2017 Sep 28;12(9):e0185421.
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185421. eCollection 2017.

Pacopampa: Early evidence of violence at a ceremonial site in the northern Peruvian highlands

Tomohito Nagaoka  1 , Kazuhiro Uzawa  2 , Yuji Seki  3 , Daniel Morales Chocano  4
Affiliations

Pacopampa: Early evidence of violence at a ceremonial site in the northern Peruvian highlands

Tomohito Nagaoka et al. PLoS One. .

Abstract

Objectives: Pacopampa, a ceremonial complex in Peru's northern highlands, reveals early evidence of trauma in the Middle to Late Formative Period coinciding with the emergence of social stratification in the area. We examine the prevalence of trauma in human remains found at the site and present evidence of the circumstances surrounding the deaths of individuals who lived during the early stages of Andean civilization.

Materials and methods: The materials are the remains of 104 individuals (38 non-adult and 66 adult) from the Middle to Late Formative Periods. We explored trauma macroscopically and recorded patterns based on skeletons' locations, age at death, sex, social class, and chronology.

Results: We detected trauma in remains over the Middle to Late Formative Periods. While the prevalence of trauma was minimal in the Middle Formative Period, skeletons from the subsequent era exhibit more severe disturbances. However, all the skeletons show signs of healing and affected individuals experienced a low degree of trauma.

Discussion: Given the archaeological context (the remains were recovered from sites of ceremonial practices), as well as the equal distribution of trauma among both sexes and a lack of defensive architecture, it is plausible that rituals, rather than organized warfare or raids, caused most of the exhibited trauma. Pacopampa was home to a complex society founded on ritual activity in a ceremonial center: this is indicated by the presence of ritual violence in a society that built impressively large, ceremonial architecture and developed social stratification without any political control of surplus agricultural goods.

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Conflict of interest statement

Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Figures

Fig 1
Fig 1. Map of Peru showing the location of Pacopampa.
Fig 2
Fig 2. Map of the ceremonial complex at Pacopampa.
Fig 3
Fig 3. Burials of the individuals with trauma.
(a) An adult female with depressed fractures in the right and left parietal bones (Specimen No. 11PC-C-Ent 1-H1). (b) A ≥55-year-old female with a depressed fracture in the left parietal bone (Specimen No. 12PC-B2-Ent 531-H2). (c) A 35–54-year-old male with depressed fractures in the frontal bone and the right parietal bone (Specimen No. 14PC-B2-Ent 537-H1). (d) A ≥55-year-old male with fractures in the right nasal bone and the left zygomatic bone (Specimen No. 14PC-A-Ent 7-H1). (e) A 15–34-year-old male with a fracture in the left fibula (Specimen No. 11PC-B2-Ent 516-H1). (f) A 15–34-year-old male with fractures in the left tibia and fibula (Specimen No. 12PC-B2-Ent 534). (g) A 35–54-year-old female with a dislocation in the right elbow joint (Specimen No. 13PC-B2-Ent 504-H2). Bold arrows show the trauma.
Fig 4
Fig 4. Depressed skull fractures.
(a–b) Multiple fractures in the right and left parietal bones in an adult female (Specimen No. 11PC-C-Ent 1-H1). (c) A fracture in the left parietal bone in a ≥55-year-old female (Specimen No. 12PC-B2-Ent 531-H2). (d–g) Multiple fractures in the frontal bone and the right parietal bone in a 35–54-year-old male (Specimen No. 14PC-B2-Ent 537-H1). Bold arrows show the trauma.
Fig 5
Fig 5. Facial bone fractures.
Multiple fractures in the right nasal bone (a) and in the left zygomatic bone (b) in a ≥55-year-old male (Specimen No. 14PC-A-Ent 7-H1). Bold arrows show the trauma.
Fig 6
Fig 6. Limb bone fractures and dislocation in the elbow joint.
(a) A fracture in the left fibula in a 15–34-year-old male (Specimen No. 11PC-B2-Ent 516-H1). (b) Fractures in the left tibia and fibula in a 15–34-year-old male (Specimen No. 12PC-B2-Ent 534). (c–e) A dislocation in the right elbow joint in a 35–54-year-old female (Specimen No. 13PC-B2-Ent 504-H2). Bold arrows show the trauma.
Fig 7
Fig 7. Stone tools.
(a) Stone club head (Specimen No. 11PC-B-L881). (b–m) Slingstones (Specimen Nos. 09PC-C-L11, 12PC-B-L1158, 09PC-C-L387, 08PC-C-L48, 12PC-C-L974, 12PC-C-L1489, 10PC-C-N114, 10PC-C-N125, 08PC-C-L80, 09PC-C-L196, 12PC-B-L925, respectively).
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