Current concepts and future strategies in the antimicrobial therapy of emerging Gram-positive spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

Abstract

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) is the most common infection in end-stage liver disease patients. SBP is defined as an ascitic fluid infection with a polymorphonuclear leucocyte count ≥ 250/mm³ without an evident intra-abdominal surgically treatable source. Several mechanisms contribute to SBP occurrence, including translocation of gut bacteria and their products, reduced intestinal motility provoking bacterial overgrowth, alteration of the gut's barrier function and local immune responses. Historically, Gram-negative enteric bacteria have been the main causative agents of SBP, thereby guiding the empirical therapeutic choice. However, over the last decade, a worryingly increasing prevalence of Gram-positive and multi-drug resistant (MDR) SBP has been seen. Recently, the microbiological spectrum of SBP seems to have changed in Europe due to a high prevalence of Gram-positive bacteria (48%-62%). The overall proportion of MDR bacteria is up to 22%-73% of cases. Consequently, empirical therapy based on third-generation cephalosporins or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, can no longer be considered the standard of care, as these drugs are associated with poor outcomes. The aim of this review is to describe, with an epidemiological focus, the evidence behind this rise in Gram-positive and MDR SBP from 2000 to present, and illustrate potential targeted therapeutic strategies. An appropriate treatment protocol should include daptomycin plus ceftaroline and meropenem, with prompt stepdown to a narrower spectrum when cultures and sensitivity data are available in order to reduce both cost and potential antibiotic resistance development.

Keywords: Cirrhosis; Critically ill patient; End-stage liver disease; Multi-drug resistant bacteria; Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis.

Figure 1

Worldwide prevalence of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis due to Gram-positive bacteria.

Figure 2

Infection management algorithm of spontaneous peritonitis due to Gram-positive bacteria[45,46,51,54,61,62,65,72,80,82-84]. AMP: Ampicillin; CFX: Cefotaxime; CFZ: Cefazolin; CPT: Ceftaroline; CTX: Ceftriaxone; DAP: Daptomycin; EAT: Empiric antibacterial therapy; GEN: Gentamicin; LNZ: Linezolid; MDR: Multidrug resistant; MER: Meropenem; MRSA: Methicillin-resistant S. aureus; MSSA: Methicillin-susceptible S. aureus; OXA: Oxacillin; PMN: Polymorphonuclear; TGC: Tigecycline; VAN: Vancomycin; VRE: Vancomycin-resistant enterococci.