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Review
. 2017 Dec 5;17(12):2799.
doi: 10.3390/s17122799.

Quartz Crystal Microbalance Electronic Interfacing Systems: A Review

Abdulrahman Alassi  1 , Mohieddine Benammar  2 , Dan Brett  3
Affiliations
Review

Quartz Crystal Microbalance Electronic Interfacing Systems: A Review

Abdulrahman Alassi et al. Sensors (Basel). .

Abstract

Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) sensors are actively being implemented in various fields due to their compatibility with different operating conditions in gaseous/liquid mediums for a wide range of measurements. This trend has been matched by the parallel advancement in tailored electronic interfacing systems for QCM sensors. That is, selecting the appropriate electronic circuit is vital for accurate sensor measurements. Many techniques were developed over time to cover the expanding measurement requirements (e.g., accommodating highly-damping environments). This paper presents a comprehensive review of the various existing QCM electronic interfacing systems. Namely, impedance-based analysis, oscillators (conventional and lock-in based techniques), exponential decay methods and the emerging phase-mass based characterization. The aforementioned methods are discussed in detail and qualitatively compared in terms of their performance for various applications. In addition, some theoretical improvements and recommendations are introduced for adequate systems implementation. Finally, specific design considerations of high-temperature microbalance systems (e.g., GaPO₄ crystals (GCM) and Langasite crystals (LCM)) are introduced, while assessing their overall system performance, stability and quality compared to conventional low-temperature applications.

Keywords: BVD model; Contactless QCM; Phase-Locked-Loop; Phase-Mass QCM; QCM oscillators; QCM-D; high-temperature microbalance; impedance analyzers; quartz crystal microbalance.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Sample commercial GCM and QCM sensors.
Figure 2
Figure 2
(Left) microbalance crystal diagram. (Right) Corresponding BVD electrical model.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Impedance amplitude and phase plots around resonance frequency for a typical high quality, lightly loaded, 5 MHz crystal.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Detailed BVD model of a loaded QCM crystal in liquid.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Effect of damping on QCM response. (a) Impedance magnitude and phase responses around resonance, for a liquid-loaded, typical 5 MHz QCM crystal; (b) QCM admittance locus under different damping conditions.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Different types of impedance-based measurement systems in literature.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Impedance analyzers characterization principle in measuring BVD parameters for a typical 5 MHz QCM.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Extended unloaded BVD model, including parallel harmonic overtones branches.
Figure 9
Figure 9
(Dashed) Voltage-divider based impedance sweep circuit; (Overall) DSB modulated response characterization.
Figure 10
Figure 10
BVD parameters estimation system from [38] for (a) Co; (b) Rm.
Figure 11
Figure 11
Compact impedance-based characterization system from [73], supporting multiplexing operation.
Figure 12
Figure 12
Rapid impedance measurement compact system from [72], based on DDS and PLD controller.
Figure 13
Figure 13
Generic block diagrams of oscillator based QCM electronic interfacing systems: (a) self-oscillating modes; (b) PLL based MSRF tracking modes.
Figure 14
Figure 14
QCM based Miller oscillator implementation, from [97].
Figure 15
Figure 15
QCM oscillator with parallel capacitance compensation from SRS products.
Figure 16
Figure 16
Single-frequency Co compensation through tuning inductor. (a) Circuit diagram; (b) Modified impedance response.
Figure 17
Figure 17
PLL circuit for MSRF tracking with manual Co compensation from [107].
Figure 18
Figure 18
Zero-phase frequency lock-in system with automatic Co compensation, from [88].
Figure 19
Figure 19
Maximum conductance PLL block diagram from [106].
Figure 20
Figure 20
Automatic maximum conductance detection system tuning principle.
Figure 21
Figure 21
Conventional exponential decay based system for series and parallel resonance detection.
Figure 22
Figure 22
Contactless QCM-D based characterization system from [114].
Figure 23
Figure 23
Phase-mass characterization generic block diagram from [82].
Figure 24
Figure 24
Circuit diagram of the practical phase-mass characterization implementation from [41,82].
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