Key scientific issues in developing drinking water guidelines for perfluoroalkyl acids: Contaminants of emerging concern

Abstract

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), a group of synthetic organic chemicals with industrial and commercial uses, are of current concern because of increasing awareness of their presence in drinking water and their potential to cause adverse health effects. PFAAs are distinctive among persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) contaminants because they are water soluble and do not break down in the environment. This commentary discusses scientific and risk assessment issues that impact the development of drinking water guidelines for PFAAs, including choice of toxicological endpoints, uncertainty factors, and exposure assumptions used as their basis. In experimental animals, PFAAs cause toxicity to the liver, the immune, endocrine, and male reproductive systems, and the developing fetus and neonate. Low-dose effects include persistent delays in mammary gland development (perfluorooctanoic acid; PFOA) and suppression of immune response (perfluorooctane sulfonate; PFOS). In humans, even general population level exposures to some PFAAs are associated with health effects such as increased serum lipids and liver enzymes, decreased vaccine response, and decreased birth weight. Ongoing exposures to even relatively low drinking water concentrations of long-chain PFAAs substantially increase human body burdens, which remain elevated for many years after exposure ends. Notably, infants are a sensitive subpopulation for PFAA's developmental effects and receive higher exposures than adults from the same drinking water source. This information, as well as emerging data from future studies, should be considered in the development of health-protective and scientifically sound guidelines for PFAAs in drinking water.

Fig 1. Structures of PFOA and PFOS.

Fig 2. Predicted increases in serum PFOA concentrations from consumption of drinking water with various concentrations of PFOA.

Predicted serum PFOA concentrations from consumption at mean [30] and upper percentile drinking water ingestion rates, as compared to median and 95th serum PFOA concentration percentiles from NHANES [23]. Predictions are based on the clearance factor for PFOA (0.14 ml/kg/day), which relates PFOA dose (ng/kg/day) to serum PFOA concentration (ng/ml) [–33]. PFOA, perfluorooctanoic acid; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.