A systematic review of wild grass exploitation in relation to emerging cereal cultivation throughout the Epipalaeolithic and aceramic Neolithic of the Fertile Crescent

Abstract

The present study investigates the occurrence of wild grasses at Epipalaeolithic and aceramic Neolithic sites in the Near East in order to assess their role in subsistence economies alongside the emergence of cereal cultivation. We use Chogha Golan in the foothills of the central Zagros Mountains (ca. 11.7-9.6 ka cal. BP) as a case study, where the archaeobotanical data suggest the frequent exploitation of a complex of wild grasses for almost 2,000 years. Domesticated emmer replaced these wild grasses as the major food resources towards the end of occupation at the site (ca. 9.8 ka cal. BP). We discuss possible implications of this development and conclude that the traditional concept of pre-domestication cultivation seems unsuited for explaining the patterns from Chogha Golan. These data are in good accordance with the overall picture in the Zagros Mountains, where wild grasses were routinely gathered throughout the early Holocene. In contrast, wild grasses were gradually replaced by wild cereals in the Levantine corridor since the end of the Pleistocene. However, several sites located in this region provide evidence for a continuous exploitation of wild grasses alongside emerging cereal cultivation and most of these taxa were part of the earliest segetal floras that evolved with the appearance of domestic cereals throughout the 11th millennium cal. BP. Some sites contemporary to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B still provide evidence for the usage of wild grasses, which possibly reflects the utilization of edible arable weeds and continuous gathering of wild grasses by more mobile groups.

Fig 1. Epipalaeolithic and aceramic Neolithic sites mentioned in the text.

(1) Chogha Golan; (2) Ali Kosh; (3) Chogha Bonut; (4) Chia Sabz; (5) Ganj Dareh; (6) Sheikh-e Abad; (7) M’lefaat; (8) Qermez Dere; (9) Hallan Çemi; (10) Demirköy; (11) Körtik Tepe; (12) Çayönü; (13) Cafer Höyük; (14) Gritille; (15) Nevali Çori; (16) Tell ‘Abr; (17) Dja’de; (18) Halula; (19) Jerf el Ahmar; (20) Sabi Abyad II; (21) Tell Qaramel; (22) Mureybet; (23) Abu Hureyra; (24) El Kowm II; (25) Tell Bouqras; (26) Aşikli Höyük; (27) Çatalhöyük; (28) Pinarbaşi; (29) Can Hasan III; (30) Ras Shamra; (31) Tell Ghoraifé; (32) Tell Aswad; (33) Tell Ramad; (34) Eynan; (35) Hilazon Tahtit; (36) Ohalo II; (37) Wadi al-Hammeh 27; (38) Iraq ed-Dubb; (39) Gilgal; (40) Netiv Hagdud; (41) ZAD 2; (42) el-Hemmeh; (43) Wadi Faynan 16; (44) Kharaneh IV; (45) Wadi el-Jilat 6 & 7.

Fig 2. Proportional development of the major taxonomic groups from AH VII to II in the deep sounding of Chogha Golan.

(A) Proportions of all analyzed plant remains; (B) proportions of all seeds and fruits without the small-seeded grasses; (C) proportions of Poaceae chaff only. Numbers in brackets give absolute counts.

Fig 3. Composition of identifiable Poaceae remains in samples from AH VII to II in the deep sounding of Chogha Golan.

Note that the categories are represented by different plant organs. The x-axis gives z-values of the deep sounding starting with 20m at the tell surface; the y-axis gives absolute counts up to 500, higher counts are given above the respective bars.

Fig 4. Scatter plots of a correspondence analysis testing for inter-sample variation in the deep sounding.

The plots show the distribution of (A) 47 taxa/categories from (B) 36 flotation samples. See S3 Table for coding of the variables and S4 Fig for the composition of Poaceae remains in the samples used in the correspondence analysis.

Fig 5. The composition of Poaceae grains in archaeobotanical assemblages dating to the Epipalaeolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic of the Near East.

See S5 Fig for a detailed key to the sites represented by the pie charts.

Fig 6. The proportions of small-seeded grasses among all Poaceae grains in relation to the mesh size used during water flotation.

Fig 7. The proportions of small-seeded grasses among all Poaceae grains recovered from sites dating to the Epipalaeolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic.

At sites that yielded > 60% of small-seeded grasses, types resembling Agrostis, Alopecurus, Eragrostis, Phalaris, Phleum, Poa or Puccinellia contributed the major portions.

Fig 8. The ubiquity of grains from selected Poaceae taxa representing gathered resources at many Epipalaeolithic and PPNA sites and became common arable weeds during the PPNB.

(P) present; (d) proposed pre-domestication cultivation; (D) presence of domestic cereal chaff; (G) domestic status of cereals based on grains.

Fig 9. The ubiquity of grains from selected Poaceae taxa, which increase in abundance during the PPNB due to their establishment as typical arable weeds.

(P) present; (d) proposed pre-domestication cultivation; (D) presence of domestic cereal chaff; (G) domestic status of cereals based on grains.

Fig 10. Associations of wild cereals and other wild grasses in northern Israel.

(A) Rich stands of Aegilops peregrina in open woodlands of Quercus calliprinos and Pistacia palaestina at Mount Carmel, accompanied by Hordeum bulbosum, Bromus lanceolatus and Avena sterilis, whereas Hordeum spontaneum represents a minor component; (B) ruderal habitat along the road between Rosh Pina and Safed in the Upper Galilee Mountains, dominated by Avena sterilis and Aegilops peregrina and accompanied by Hordeum spontaneum and Triticum dicoccoides. Wild emmer wheat even grew within the village of Safed on waste places, which it apparently invaded from nearby primary stands; (C) same location near Safed, only about 50m away; dominated by Hordeum spontaneum (ears below) and Hordeum bulbosum (ears above) with Triticum dicoccoides, Avena sterilis and Aegilops peregrina as minor components. These wild stands display a considerable diversity in taxonomic composition on a small spatial scale. Small to medium-seeded taxa such as Bromus spp., Lolium rigidum, Poa bulbosa and Phalaris spp. were regularly associated with these wild cereal stands. Photos by A. Weide, 2017.