Trends in Austrian Resource Efficiency: An Exergy and Useful Work Analysis in Comparison to Material Use, CO2 Emissions, and Land Use

Abstract

In the past few years, resource use and resource efficiency have been implemented in the European Union (EU) environmental policy programs as well as international sustainable development programs. In their programs, the EU focuses on four resource types that should be addressed: materials, energy (or carbon dioxide [CO₂] emissions), water, and land. In this article, we first discuss different perspectives on energy use and present the results of a long-term exergy and useful work analysis of the Austrian economy for the period 1900-2012, using the methodology developed by Ayres and Warr. Second, we discuss Austrian resource efficiency by comparing the presented exergy and useful work data with material use, CO₂ emissions, and land-use data taken from statistical sources. This comparison provides, for the first time, a long-term analysis of Austrian resource efficiency based on a broad understanding thereof and evaluates Austrian development in relation to EU and Austrian policy targets.

Keywords: Austria; energy analysis; exergy; resource efficiency; resource productivity; sustainable resource use.

Figure 1

Primary exergy inputs (by source) in Austria in PJ, 1900 and 2012. Note: The world war periods are excluded for reasons of data quality. PJ = petajoules.

Figure 2

Exergy inputs in Austria by useful work type, 1900–2012: (a) total values in PJ and (b) shares of total. Note: The world war periods are excluded for reasons of data quality. PJ = petajoules.

Figure 3

Useful work supply in Austria by type and share, 1900–2012: (a) total values in PJ and (b) shares of total. Note: The useful work supply in the category light was close to zero throughout the time period observed and thus excluded. The world war periods are excluded for reasons of data quality. PJ = petajoules.

Figure 4

Fossil fuels as share of total exergy inputs and total useful work outputs in Austria. Note: The world war periods are excluded for reasons of data quality.

Figure 5

Aggregate efficiency of the conversion from exergy inputs to useful work in Austria, 1900–2012. Note: The world war periods are excluded for reasons of data quality.

Figure 6

Exergy and useful work in relation to CO₂ emissions: (a) absolute values, indexed, and (b) CO₂ emissions in relation to exergy inputs and useful work outputs, Austria 1960‐2012. Note: Exergy and useful work: own calculations; CO₂ emissions (World Bank 2014). CO₂ = carbon dioxide.

Figure 7

Exergy and useful work productivities in Austria, 1900–2012. Note: The world war periods are excluded for reasons of data quality.

Figure 8

Development of resource use and resource efficiency in Austria, 1960–2012: (a) absolute values, indexed, and (b) productivities. Data and sources: population (1,000 persons) from FAOSTAT (FAO 2012); GDP (million Geary‐Khamis dollars; World Economics [2015]); exergy and useful work: own calculations; domestic material consumption (DMC) (million metric tonnes/yr) from Statistics Austria (2013) and material efficiency = GDP/DMC (GK$/t); human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) (g C/m²/yr) from Gingrich and colleagues (2015) and Krausmann and colleagues (2012) and land‐use efficiency measured as GDP/HANPP (GK$/kt/m²); HANPP data are only available until 2005; CO₂ emissions (kt) (World Bank 2014) and CO₂ efficiency (GK$/kg); no CO₂ emission data available for 2012. CO₂ = carbon dioxide; g C/m²/yr = grams of carbon per square meter per year; GDP = gross domestic product; GK$/t = Geary–Khamis dollars per tonne; kg = kilogram; kt = kilotonnes; yr = year.