Phylogenetic classification of the world's tropical forests

J W Ferry Slik¹, Janet Franklin², Víctor Arroyo-Rodríguez³, Richard Field⁴, Salomon Aguilar⁵, Nikolay Aguirre⁶, Jorge Ahumada⁷, Shin-Ichiro Aiba⁸, Luciana F Alves⁹, Anitha K¹⁰, Andres Avella¹¹, Francisco Mora³, Gerardo A Aymard C^{12

13}, Selene Báez¹⁴, Patricia Balvanera³, Meredith L Bastian¹⁵, Jean-François Bastin¹⁶, Peter J Bellingham¹⁷, Eduardo van den Berg¹⁸, Polyanna da Conceição Bispo¹⁹, Pascal Boeckx²⁰, Katrin Boehning-Gaese^{21

22}, Frans Bongers²³, Brad Boyle²⁴, Fabian Brambach²⁵, Francis Q Brearley²⁶, Sandra Brown²⁷, Shauna-Lee Chai²⁸, Robin L Chazdon²⁹, Shengbin Chen³⁰, Phourin Chhang³¹, George Chuyong³², Corneille Ewango³³, Indiana M Coronado³⁴, Jurgi Cristóbal-Azkarate³⁵, Heike Culmsee³⁶, Kipiro Damas³⁷, H S Dattaraja³⁸, Priya Davidar³⁹, Saara J DeWalt⁴⁰, Hazimah Din⁴¹, Donald R Drake⁴², Alvaro Duque⁴³, Giselda Durigan⁴⁴, Karl Eichhorn⁴⁵, Eduardo Schmidt Eler⁴⁶, Tsutomu Enoki⁴⁷, Andreas Ensslin⁴⁸, Adandé Belarmain Fandohan⁴⁹, Nina Farwig⁵⁰, Kenneth J Feeley⁵¹, Markus Fischer⁴⁸, Olle Forshed⁵², Queila Souza Garcia⁵³, Satish Chandra Garkoti⁵⁴, Thomas W Gillespie⁵⁵, Jean-Francois Gillet⁵⁶, Christelle Gonmadje^{57

58}, Iñigo Granzow-de la Cerda⁵⁹, Daniel M Griffith⁶⁰, James Grogan⁶¹, Khalid Rehman Hakeem⁶², David J Harris⁶³, Rhett D Harrison⁶⁴, Andy Hector⁶⁵, Andreas Hemp⁶⁶, Jürgen Homeier⁶⁷, M Shah Hussain⁶⁸, Guillermo Ibarra-Manríquez³, I Faridah Hanum⁶⁹, Nobuo Imai⁷⁰, Patrick A Jansen^{5

23}, Carlos Alfredo Joly⁷¹, Shijo Joseph^{10

72}, Kuswata Kartawinata^{73

74}, Elizabeth Kearsley⁷⁵, Daniel L Kelly⁷⁶, Michael Kessler⁷⁷, Timothy J Killeen⁷⁸, Robert M Kooyman^{79

80}, Yves Laumonier¹⁰, Susan G Laurance⁸¹, William F Laurance⁸¹, Michael J Lawes⁸², Susan G Letcher⁸³, Jeremy Lindsell⁸⁴, Jon Lovett^{85

86}, Jose Lozada⁸⁷, Xinghui Lu⁸⁸, Anne Mette Lykke⁸⁹, Khairil Bin Mahmud⁹⁰, Ni Putu Diana Mahayani⁹¹, Asyraf Mansor^{92

93}, Andrew R Marshall^{94

95

96}, Emanuel H Martin⁹⁷, Darley Calderado Leal Matos⁹⁸, Jorge A Meave⁹⁹, Felipe P L Melo¹⁰⁰, Zhofre Huberto Aguirre Mendoza¹⁰¹, Faizah Metali⁴¹, Vincent P Medjibe¹⁰², Jean Paul Metzger¹⁰³, Thiago Metzker^{53

104}, D Mohandass^{39

105}, Miguel A Munguía-Rosas¹⁰⁶, Rodrigo Muñoz⁹⁹, Eddy Nurtjahy¹⁰⁷, Eddie Lenza de Oliveira¹⁰⁸, Onrizal¹⁰⁹, Pia Parolin^{110

111}, Marc Parren¹¹², N Parthasarathy³⁹, Ekananda Paudel¹¹³, Rolando Perez⁵, Eduardo A Pérez-García⁹⁹, Ulf Pommer²¹, Lourens Poorter²³, Lan Qie¹¹¹, Maria Teresa F Piedade⁴⁶, José Roberto Rodrigues Pinto¹¹⁴, Axel Dalberg Poulsen⁶³, John R Poulsen¹¹⁵, Jennifer S Powers¹¹⁶, Rama Chandra Prasad¹¹⁷, Jean-Philippe Puyravaud¹¹⁸, Orlando Rangel¹¹, Jan Reitsma¹¹⁹, Diogo S B Rocha¹²⁰, Samir Rolim¹²¹, Francesco Rovero¹²², Andes Rozak¹²³, Kalle Ruokolainen¹²⁴, Ervan Rutishauser⁵, Gemma Rutten⁴⁸, Mohd Nizam Mohd Said¹²⁵, Felipe Z Saiter¹²⁶, Philippe Saner¹²⁷, Braulio Santos¹²⁸, João Roberto Dos Santos¹²⁹, Swapan Kumar Sarker¹³⁰, Christine B Schmitt^{131

132}, Jochen Schoengart⁴⁶, Mark Schulze¹³³, Douglas Sheil¹³⁴, Plinio Sist¹³⁵, Alexandre F Souza¹³⁶, Wilson Roberto Spironello⁴⁶, Tereza Sposito^{53

104}, Robert Steinmetz¹³⁷, Tariq Stevart¹³⁸, Marcio Seiji Suganuma¹³⁹, Rahayu Sukri⁴¹, Aisha Sultana⁶⁸, Raman Sukumar³⁸, Terry Sunderland¹⁰, Supriyadi⁹¹, H S Suresh³⁸, Eizi Suzuki⁸, Marcelo Tabarelli¹⁴⁰, Jianwei Tang¹⁴¹, Ed V J Tanner¹⁴², Natalia Targhetta⁴⁶, Ida Theilade¹⁴³, Duncan Thomas¹⁴⁴, Jonathan Timberlake⁸⁶, Márcio de Morisson Valeriano¹²⁹, Johan van Valkenburg¹⁴⁵, Tran Van Do¹⁴⁶, Hoang Van Sam¹⁴⁷, John H Vandermeer¹⁴⁸, Hans Verbeeck⁷⁵, Ole Reidar Vetaas¹⁴⁹, Victor Adekunle¹⁵⁰, Simone A Vieira⁷¹, Campbell O Webb¹⁵¹, Edward L Webb¹⁵², Timothy Whitfeld¹⁵³, Serge Wich^{154

155}, John Williams¹⁵⁶, Susan Wiser¹⁷, Florian Wittmann¹⁵⁷, Xiaobo Yang¹⁵⁸, C Yves Adou Yao¹⁵⁹, Sandra L Yap¹⁶⁰, Rakan A Zahawi¹⁶¹, Rahmad Zakaria⁹², Runguo Zang⁸⁸

Affiliations

¹ Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam; ferryslik@hotmail.com janet.franklin@ucr.edu.
² Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521; ferryslik@hotmail.com janet.franklin@ucr.edu.
³ Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 58190 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico.
⁴ School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.
⁵ Center for Tropical Forest Science, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancon, Panama.
⁶ Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Research Program, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja EC110103, Ecuador.
⁷ The Moore Center for Science, Conservation International, Arlington, VA 22202.
⁸ Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan.
⁹ Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095.
¹⁰ Forest and Environment Program, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor 16115, Indonesia.
¹¹ Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá 111321, Colombia.
¹² UNELLEZ-Guanare, Programa de Ciencias del Agro y el Mar, Herbario Universitario (PORT), Mesa de Cavacas, Estado Portuguesa 3350, Venezuela.
¹³ Compensation International Progress S.A.-Ciprogress Greenlife, Bogotá D.C., Colombia.
¹⁴ Departamento de Biología, Escuela Politécnica Nacional del Ecuador, Ladrón de Guevara E11-253, Quito, Ecuador.
¹⁵ Smithsonian's National Zoo, Animal Care Sciences, Primates, Washington, DC 20013-7012.
¹⁶ Institute of Integrative Biology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
¹⁷ Landcare Research Manaaki Whenua, Lincoln 7640, New Zealand.
¹⁸ Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras-MG, 37200-000, Brazil.
¹⁹ Centre for Landscape and Climate Research, Department of Geography, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, United Kingdom.
²⁰ Isotope Bioscience Laboratory (ISOFYS), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
²¹ Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), 60325 Frankfurt (Main), Germany.
²² Institute for Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60439 Frankfurt (Main), Germany.
²³ Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
²⁴ Hardner & Gullison Associates, Victoria, BC V8P 1A9, Canada.
²⁵ Ecology and Ecosystem Research, Georg August University Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
²⁶ School of Science and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, United Kingdom.
²⁷ Environment Group, Winrock International, St Dogmaels SA43 3 DT, United Kingdom.
²⁸ Ecosystem Management Unit, InnoTech Alberta, Vegreville, AB T9C 1T4, Canada.
²⁹ Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-3043.
³⁰ College of Environment and Ecology, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China.
³¹ Forest and Wildlife Research Institute, 12101 Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
³² Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, University of Buea, POB 63 Buea, Cameroon.
³³ Wildlife Conservation Society-Program DR Congo, B.P. 14537 Brazzaville, DR Congo.
³⁴ Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua, Herbario HULE, León 505, Nicaragua.
³⁵ Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3QG, United Kingdom.
³⁶ DBU Natural Heritage, German Federal Foundation for the Environment, 49090 Osnabrück, Germany.
³⁷ PNG Forest Research Institute, Lae 411, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.
³⁸ Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India.
³⁹ Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India.
⁴⁰ Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634.
⁴¹ Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
⁴² Botany Department, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822.
⁴³ Departamento de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia.
⁴⁴ Laboratório de Ecologia e Hidrologia Florestal, Floresta Estadual de Assis, Instituto Florestal de SP, 19802-970 Assis, SP, Brazil.
⁴⁵ Eichhorn Ecologie, 3702 BK Zeist, The Netherlands.
⁴⁶ Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA, Araújo, CEP 69067-375 Manaus AM, Brazil.
⁴⁷ Kasuya Research Forest, Kyushu University, Sasaguri, Fukuoka 811-2415, Japan.
⁴⁸ Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, 3013 Bern, Switzerland.
⁴⁹ Ecole de Foresterie et Ingénierie du Bois, Université Nationale d'Agriculture, BP 45, Kétou, Benin.
⁵⁰ Conservation Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
⁵¹ Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146.
⁵² WWF-Sweden/Världsnaturfonden WWF, Ulriksdals Slott, S-170 81 Solna, Sweden.
⁵³ Departamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
⁵⁴ School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India.
⁵⁵ Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095.
⁵⁶ TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Central African Forests, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, B-5030 Gembloux, Belgium.
⁵⁷ Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Yaounde I, Yaounde, BP 812, Cameroon.
⁵⁸ National Herbarium, Yaoundé, BP 20818, Cameroon.
⁵⁹ CREAF, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain.
⁶⁰ Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja 1101608, Ecuador.
⁶¹ Mount Holyoke College Botanic Garden, South Hadley, MA 01075.
⁶² Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
⁶³ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH3 5LR, United Kingdom.
⁶⁴ World Agroforestry Centre, East and Southern Africa Region, Woodlands, Lusaka, Zambia.
⁶⁵ Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RB, United Kingdom.
⁶⁶ Department of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany.
⁶⁷ Plant Ecology, Albrecht von Haller Institute of Plant Sciences, Georg August University Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
⁶⁸ Biodiversity Parks Programme, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India.
⁶⁹ Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang-43400, Selangor, Malaysia.
⁷⁰ Department of Forest Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan.
⁷¹ UNICAMP, Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz-Barão Geraldo, Campinas, Sao Paulo 13083-970, Brazil.
⁷² Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing Department, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala 680653, India.
⁷³ Integrative Research Center, The Field Museum, Chicago, IL 60605.
⁷⁴ Herbarium Bogoriense, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong 16911, Indonesia.
⁷⁵ Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology (CAVElab), Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
⁷⁶ Trinity Centre for Biodiversity Research, Trinity College, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
⁷⁷ Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland.
⁷⁸ Agteca-Amazonica, Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
⁷⁹ Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia.
⁸⁰ National Herbarium of New South Wales, Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust, Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia.
⁸¹ Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science and College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia.
⁸² School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville 3209, South Africa.
⁸³ Department of Plant Biology, College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, ME 04609.
⁸⁴ The RSPB Centre for Conservation Science, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL, United Kingdom.
⁸⁵ School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom.
⁸⁶ Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, United Kingdom.
⁸⁷ Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Ambientales, Universidad de Los Andes, Merida S101-A, Venezuela.
⁸⁸ Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of State Forestry Administration, Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Protection, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China.
⁸⁹ Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark.
⁹⁰ Faculty of Bioresources and Food Sciences, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, 20300, Besut Campus, Terengganu, Malaysia.
⁹¹ Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
⁹² School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
⁹³ Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
⁹⁴ CIRCLE, University of York, York YO10 5NG, United Kingdom.
⁹⁵ Flamingo Land, North Yorkshire YO17 6UX, United Kingdom.
⁹⁶ Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD 4556, Australia.
⁹⁷ College of African Wildlife Management, Department of Wildlife Management, Moshi, Tanzania.
⁹⁸ Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém PA, 66040-170, Brazil.
⁹⁹ Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, C.P. 04510, Mexico.
¹⁰⁰ Center for Biosciences, Federal University of Pernambuco, Cidade Universitária, Recife PE, 50670-901, Brazil.
¹⁰¹ Herbario Loja, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja EC110103, Ecuador.
¹⁰² Commission des Forêts d'Afrique Centrale (COMIFAC), BP 20818 Yaoundé, Cameroon.
¹⁰³ Department of Ecology, Institute of Bioscience, University of São Paulo, 05508-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
¹⁰⁴ Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Conservação e Manejo da Vida Silvestre (ECMVS), IBAM-Instituto Bem Ambiental, Belo Horizonte-Minas Gerais, 30360-310, Brazil.
¹⁰⁵ Root and Soil Biology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, India.
¹⁰⁶ Laboratorio de Ecología Terrestre, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV), C.P. 927310 Mérida, México.
¹⁰⁷ Department of Biology, Universitas Bangka Belitung (UBB), Kampus Merawang, Kepulauan Bangka Belitung 33172, Indonesia.
¹⁰⁸ Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação, Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso-UNEMAT, 78200-000 Cáceres, Mato Grosso, Brazil.
¹⁰⁹ Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan 20155, Indonesia.
¹¹⁰ Department of Biodiversity, Evolution and Ecology of Plants, Biocentre Klein Flottbek, University of Hamburg, D-22609 Hamburg, Germany.
¹¹¹ Institut Sophia Agrobiotech, 06903 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France.
¹¹² World Resource Institute, Washington, DC 20002.
¹¹³ Centre for Mountain Ecosystem Studies, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China.
¹¹⁴ Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, 70910-900, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil.
¹¹⁵ Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708.
¹¹⁶ College of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108.
¹¹⁷ International Institute of Information Technology, Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Telangana 500032, India.
¹¹⁸ Sigur Nature Trust, Chadapatti, Masinagudi PO Nilgiris, TN 643223, India.
¹¹⁹ Bureau Waardenburg, 4100 AJ Culemborg, The Netherlands.
¹²⁰ Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil.
¹²¹ Laboratório de Restinga e Floresta Atlântica, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, BR-101 São Mateus, Brazil.
¹²² Tropical Biodiversity Section, MUSE - Museo delle Scienze, 38122 Trento, Italy.
¹²³ Cibodas Botanic Gardens, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cipanas, Cianjur, West Java 43253, Indonesia.
¹²⁴ Department of Geography and Geology, University of Turku, Turku, 20014 Turun yliopisto, Finland.
¹²⁵ School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
¹²⁶ Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Espírito Santo, São João de Petrópolis, Santa Teresa, 29660-000, Brazil.
¹²⁷ Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
¹²⁸ Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, Brazil.
¹²⁹ Remote Sensing Department (DSR), National Institute for Space Research (INPE), São José dos Campos, São Paulo 12227-010, Brazil.
¹³⁰ Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom.
¹³¹ Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, 53113 Bonn, Germany.
¹³² Chair of Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology, University of Freiburg, 79085 Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.
¹³³ H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Blue River, OR 97413.
¹³⁴ Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1432 Ås, Norway.
¹³⁵ Cirad-ES, Campus International de Baillarguet, TA C-105/D 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
¹³⁶ Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, CEP 59078-970, Brazil.
¹³⁷ World Wildlife Fund Thailand, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
¹³⁸ Africa and Madagascar Department, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO 63110.
¹³⁹ Federal University of Technology-Paraná, 86812-460, Apucarana, PR, Brazil.
¹⁴⁰ Departamento de Botânica, Cidade Universitária, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, CEP, 50670-901, Brazil.
¹⁴¹ Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun Town, Mengla County, Yunnan Province 666303, China.
¹⁴² Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom.
¹⁴³ Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen, 1165 Copenhagen, Denmark.
¹⁴⁴ Department of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA 98686.
¹⁴⁵ Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety, Authority, National Reference Centre, 6700HC Wageningen, The Netherlands.
¹⁴⁶ Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
¹⁴⁷ Science, Technology and International Cooperation Department, Vietnam National University of Forestry, Hanoi 144, Vietnam.
¹⁴⁸ Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.
¹⁴⁹ Department of Geography, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway.
¹⁵⁰ Department of Forestry and Wood Technology, The Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704 Akure, Nigeria.
¹⁵¹ Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02130.
¹⁵² Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore.
¹⁵³ Brown University, Providence, RI 02912.
¹⁵⁴ School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom.
¹⁵⁵ Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, 1098 Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
¹⁵⁶ Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CIIDIR-Unidad Oaxaca, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, CP 71230, Oaxaca, Mexico.
¹⁵⁷ Department of Floodplain Ecology, Institute of Geography and Geoecology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, D-76437 Rastatt, Germany.
¹⁵⁸ College of Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Meilan Qu Haikou Shi, 570228, Hainan Province, China.
¹⁵⁹ Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouet-Boigny, Abidjan 22, Ivory Coast.
¹⁶⁰ Institute of Arts and Sciences, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines.
¹⁶¹ Department of Biology, American University of Beirut, Riad El-Solh, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon.

PMID: 29432167
PMCID: PMC5828595
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1714977115

Phylogenetic classification of the world's tropical forests

J W Ferry Slik et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018.

. 2018 Feb 20;115(8):1837-1842.

doi: 10.1073/pnas.1714977115. Epub 2018 Feb 5.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam; ferryslik@hotmail.com janet.franklin@ucr.edu.
² Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521; ferryslik@hotmail.com janet.franklin@ucr.edu.
³ Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 58190 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico.
⁴ School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.
⁵ Center for Tropical Forest Science, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancon, Panama.
⁶ Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Research Program, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja EC110103, Ecuador.
⁷ The Moore Center for Science, Conservation International, Arlington, VA 22202.
⁸ Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan.
⁹ Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095.
¹⁰ Forest and Environment Program, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor 16115, Indonesia.
¹¹ Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá 111321, Colombia.
¹² UNELLEZ-Guanare, Programa de Ciencias del Agro y el Mar, Herbario Universitario (PORT), Mesa de Cavacas, Estado Portuguesa 3350, Venezuela.
¹³ Compensation International Progress S.A.-Ciprogress Greenlife, Bogotá D.C., Colombia.
¹⁴ Departamento de Biología, Escuela Politécnica Nacional del Ecuador, Ladrón de Guevara E11-253, Quito, Ecuador.
¹⁵ Smithsonian's National Zoo, Animal Care Sciences, Primates, Washington, DC 20013-7012.
¹⁶ Institute of Integrative Biology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
¹⁷ Landcare Research Manaaki Whenua, Lincoln 7640, New Zealand.
¹⁸ Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras-MG, 37200-000, Brazil.
¹⁹ Centre for Landscape and Climate Research, Department of Geography, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, United Kingdom.
²⁰ Isotope Bioscience Laboratory (ISOFYS), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
²¹ Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), 60325 Frankfurt (Main), Germany.
²² Institute for Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60439 Frankfurt (Main), Germany.
²³ Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
²⁴ Hardner & Gullison Associates, Victoria, BC V8P 1A9, Canada.
²⁵ Ecology and Ecosystem Research, Georg August University Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
²⁶ School of Science and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M1 5GD, United Kingdom.
²⁷ Environment Group, Winrock International, St Dogmaels SA43 3 DT, United Kingdom.
²⁸ Ecosystem Management Unit, InnoTech Alberta, Vegreville, AB T9C 1T4, Canada.
²⁹ Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-3043.
³⁰ College of Environment and Ecology, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China.
³¹ Forest and Wildlife Research Institute, 12101 Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
³² Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, University of Buea, POB 63 Buea, Cameroon.
³³ Wildlife Conservation Society-Program DR Congo, B.P. 14537 Brazzaville, DR Congo.
³⁴ Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua, Herbario HULE, León 505, Nicaragua.
³⁵ Division of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3QG, United Kingdom.
³⁶ DBU Natural Heritage, German Federal Foundation for the Environment, 49090 Osnabrück, Germany.
³⁷ PNG Forest Research Institute, Lae 411, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.
³⁸ Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India.
³⁹ Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India.
⁴⁰ Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634.
⁴¹ Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
⁴² Botany Department, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822.
⁴³ Departamento de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia.
⁴⁴ Laboratório de Ecologia e Hidrologia Florestal, Floresta Estadual de Assis, Instituto Florestal de SP, 19802-970 Assis, SP, Brazil.
⁴⁵ Eichhorn Ecologie, 3702 BK Zeist, The Netherlands.
⁴⁶ Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA, Araújo, CEP 69067-375 Manaus AM, Brazil.
⁴⁷ Kasuya Research Forest, Kyushu University, Sasaguri, Fukuoka 811-2415, Japan.
⁴⁸ Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, 3013 Bern, Switzerland.
⁴⁹ Ecole de Foresterie et Ingénierie du Bois, Université Nationale d'Agriculture, BP 45, Kétou, Benin.
⁵⁰ Conservation Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
⁵¹ Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146.
⁵² WWF-Sweden/Världsnaturfonden WWF, Ulriksdals Slott, S-170 81 Solna, Sweden.
⁵³ Departamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
⁵⁴ School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India.
⁵⁵ Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095.
⁵⁶ TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Central African Forests, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, B-5030 Gembloux, Belgium.
⁵⁷ Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Yaounde I, Yaounde, BP 812, Cameroon.
⁵⁸ National Herbarium, Yaoundé, BP 20818, Cameroon.
⁵⁹ CREAF, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain.
⁶⁰ Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja 1101608, Ecuador.
⁶¹ Mount Holyoke College Botanic Garden, South Hadley, MA 01075.
⁶² Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
⁶³ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH3 5LR, United Kingdom.
⁶⁴ World Agroforestry Centre, East and Southern Africa Region, Woodlands, Lusaka, Zambia.
⁶⁵ Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RB, United Kingdom.
⁶⁶ Department of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany.
⁶⁷ Plant Ecology, Albrecht von Haller Institute of Plant Sciences, Georg August University Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
⁶⁸ Biodiversity Parks Programme, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India.
⁶⁹ Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang-43400, Selangor, Malaysia.
⁷⁰ Department of Forest Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan.
⁷¹ UNICAMP, Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz-Barão Geraldo, Campinas, Sao Paulo 13083-970, Brazil.
⁷² Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing Department, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala 680653, India.
⁷³ Integrative Research Center, The Field Museum, Chicago, IL 60605.
⁷⁴ Herbarium Bogoriense, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong 16911, Indonesia.
⁷⁵ Computational and Applied Vegetation Ecology (CAVElab), Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
⁷⁶ Trinity Centre for Biodiversity Research, Trinity College, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
⁷⁷ Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland.
⁷⁸ Agteca-Amazonica, Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
⁷⁹ Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia.
⁸⁰ National Herbarium of New South Wales, Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust, Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia.
⁸¹ Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science and College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia.
⁸² School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville 3209, South Africa.
⁸³ Department of Plant Biology, College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, ME 04609.
⁸⁴ The RSPB Centre for Conservation Science, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL, United Kingdom.
⁸⁵ School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom.
⁸⁶ Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, United Kingdom.
⁸⁷ Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Ambientales, Universidad de Los Andes, Merida S101-A, Venezuela.
⁸⁸ Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of State Forestry Administration, Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Protection, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China.
⁸⁹ Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark.
⁹⁰ Faculty of Bioresources and Food Sciences, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, 20300, Besut Campus, Terengganu, Malaysia.
⁹¹ Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
⁹² School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
⁹³ Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
⁹⁴ CIRCLE, University of York, York YO10 5NG, United Kingdom.
⁹⁵ Flamingo Land, North Yorkshire YO17 6UX, United Kingdom.
⁹⁶ Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD 4556, Australia.
⁹⁷ College of African Wildlife Management, Department of Wildlife Management, Moshi, Tanzania.
⁹⁸ Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém PA, 66040-170, Brazil.
⁹⁹ Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, C.P. 04510, Mexico.
¹⁰⁰ Center for Biosciences, Federal University of Pernambuco, Cidade Universitária, Recife PE, 50670-901, Brazil.
¹⁰¹ Herbario Loja, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Loja EC110103, Ecuador.
¹⁰² Commission des Forêts d'Afrique Centrale (COMIFAC), BP 20818 Yaoundé, Cameroon.
¹⁰³ Department of Ecology, Institute of Bioscience, University of São Paulo, 05508-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
¹⁰⁴ Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Conservação e Manejo da Vida Silvestre (ECMVS), IBAM-Instituto Bem Ambiental, Belo Horizonte-Minas Gerais, 30360-310, Brazil.
¹⁰⁵ Root and Soil Biology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, India.
¹⁰⁶ Laboratorio de Ecología Terrestre, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV), C.P. 927310 Mérida, México.
¹⁰⁷ Department of Biology, Universitas Bangka Belitung (UBB), Kampus Merawang, Kepulauan Bangka Belitung 33172, Indonesia.
¹⁰⁸ Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação, Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso-UNEMAT, 78200-000 Cáceres, Mato Grosso, Brazil.
¹⁰⁹ Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan 20155, Indonesia.
¹¹⁰ Department of Biodiversity, Evolution and Ecology of Plants, Biocentre Klein Flottbek, University of Hamburg, D-22609 Hamburg, Germany.
¹¹¹ Institut Sophia Agrobiotech, 06903 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France.
¹¹² World Resource Institute, Washington, DC 20002.
¹¹³ Centre for Mountain Ecosystem Studies, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China.
¹¹⁴ Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, 70910-900, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil.
¹¹⁵ Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708.
¹¹⁶ College of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108.
¹¹⁷ International Institute of Information Technology, Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Telangana 500032, India.
¹¹⁸ Sigur Nature Trust, Chadapatti, Masinagudi PO Nilgiris, TN 643223, India.
¹¹⁹ Bureau Waardenburg, 4100 AJ Culemborg, The Netherlands.
¹²⁰ Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil.
¹²¹ Laboratório de Restinga e Floresta Atlântica, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, BR-101 São Mateus, Brazil.
¹²² Tropical Biodiversity Section, MUSE - Museo delle Scienze, 38122 Trento, Italy.
¹²³ Cibodas Botanic Gardens, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cipanas, Cianjur, West Java 43253, Indonesia.
¹²⁴ Department of Geography and Geology, University of Turku, Turku, 20014 Turun yliopisto, Finland.
¹²⁵ School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
¹²⁶ Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Espírito Santo, São João de Petrópolis, Santa Teresa, 29660-000, Brazil.
¹²⁷ Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
¹²⁸ Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 58051-900, Brazil.
¹²⁹ Remote Sensing Department (DSR), National Institute for Space Research (INPE), São José dos Campos, São Paulo 12227-010, Brazil.
¹³⁰ Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom.
¹³¹ Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, 53113 Bonn, Germany.
¹³² Chair of Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology, University of Freiburg, 79085 Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.
¹³³ H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Blue River, OR 97413.
¹³⁴ Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1432 Ås, Norway.
¹³⁵ Cirad-ES, Campus International de Baillarguet, TA C-105/D 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
¹³⁶ Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, CEP 59078-970, Brazil.
¹³⁷ World Wildlife Fund Thailand, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
¹³⁸ Africa and Madagascar Department, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO 63110.
¹³⁹ Federal University of Technology-Paraná, 86812-460, Apucarana, PR, Brazil.
¹⁴⁰ Departamento de Botânica, Cidade Universitária, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, CEP, 50670-901, Brazil.
¹⁴¹ Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun Town, Mengla County, Yunnan Province 666303, China.
¹⁴² Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom.
¹⁴³ Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen, 1165 Copenhagen, Denmark.
¹⁴⁴ Department of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA 98686.
¹⁴⁵ Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety, Authority, National Reference Centre, 6700HC Wageningen, The Netherlands.
¹⁴⁶ Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
¹⁴⁷ Science, Technology and International Cooperation Department, Vietnam National University of Forestry, Hanoi 144, Vietnam.
¹⁴⁸ Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.
¹⁴⁹ Department of Geography, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway.
¹⁵⁰ Department of Forestry and Wood Technology, The Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704 Akure, Nigeria.
¹⁵¹ Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02130.
¹⁵² Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore.
¹⁵³ Brown University, Providence, RI 02912.
¹⁵⁴ School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom.
¹⁵⁵ Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, 1098 Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
¹⁵⁶ Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CIIDIR-Unidad Oaxaca, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, CP 71230, Oaxaca, Mexico.
¹⁵⁷ Department of Floodplain Ecology, Institute of Geography and Geoecology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, D-76437 Rastatt, Germany.
¹⁵⁸ College of Agriculture and Forestry, Hainan University, Meilan Qu Haikou Shi, 570228, Hainan Province, China.
¹⁵⁹ Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouet-Boigny, Abidjan 22, Ivory Coast.
¹⁶⁰ Institute of Arts and Sciences, Far Eastern University, Manila, Philippines.
¹⁶¹ Department of Biology, American University of Beirut, Riad El-Solh, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon.

PMID: 29432167
PMCID: PMC5828595
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1714977115

Erratum in

Correction for Slik et al., Phylogenetic classification of the world's tropical forests.
[No authors listed] [No authors listed] Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018 Mar 27;115(13):E3067. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1803346115. Epub 2018 Mar 12. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018. PMID: 29531029 Free PMC article. No abstract available.

Abstract

Knowledge about the biogeographic affinities of the world's tropical forests helps to better understand regional differences in forest structure, diversity, composition, and dynamics. Such understanding will enable anticipation of region-specific responses to global environmental change. Modern phylogenies, in combination with broad coverage of species inventory data, now allow for global biogeographic analyses that take species evolutionary distance into account. Here we present a classification of the world's tropical forests based on their phylogenetic similarity. We identify five principal floristic regions and their floristic relationships: (i) Indo-Pacific, (ii) Subtropical, (iii) African, (iv) American, and (v) Dry forests. Our results do not support the traditional neo- versus paleotropical forest division but instead separate the combined American and African forests from their Indo-Pacific counterparts. We also find indications for the existence of a global dry forest region, with representatives in America, Africa, Madagascar, and India. Additionally, a northern-hemisphere Subtropical forest region was identified with representatives in Asia and America, providing support for a link between Asian and American northern-hemisphere forests.

Keywords: biogeographic legacies; forest classification; forest functional similarity; phylogenetic community distance; tropical forests.

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Conflict of interest statement

Conflict of interest statement: V.A.-R., K.B.-G., B.B., F.Q.B., N.F., M.K., W.F.L., S. G. Letcher, C.B.S., D.S., T. Stevart, and S. Wiser have coauthored papers with Jens-Christian Svenning in the past 48 months. A.M.L. and Jens-Christian Svenning are both affiliated with Aarhus University.

Figures

**Fig. 1.**
Classification maps of the world’s tropical forests, showing two (A), three (B), four (C), and five (D) clusters. Cluster result represents a majority rule consensus tree, with the percentage of times that each grouping was observed in the 20 separate cluster analyses shown in D. Only locations that could be classified with certainty (P < 0.05) are shown (n = 392).

See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

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Phylogenetic classification of the world's tropical forests

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Phylogenetic classification of the world's tropical forests

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