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Meta-Analysis
. 2018 Mar 19;3(3):CD000208.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000208.pub2.

Miscellaneous treatments for antipsychotic-induced tardive dyskinesia

Karla Soares-Weiser  1 , John Rathbone, Yusuke Ogawa, Kiyomi Shinohara, Hanna Bergman
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Miscellaneous treatments for antipsychotic-induced tardive dyskinesia

Karla Soares-Weiser et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Antipsychotic (neuroleptic) medication is used extensively to treat people with chronic mental illnesses. Its use, however, is associated with adverse effects, including movement disorders such as tardive dyskinesia (TD) - a problem often seen as repetitive involuntary movements around the mouth and face. This review, one in a series examining the treatment of TD, covers miscellaneous treatments not covered elsewhere.

Objectives: To determine whether drugs, hormone-, dietary-, or herb-supplements not covered in other Cochrane reviews on TD treatments, surgical interventions, electroconvulsive therapy, and mind-body therapies were effective and safe for people with antipsychotic-induced TD.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Schizophrenia Group's Study-Based Register of Trials including trial registers (16 July 2015 and 26 April 2017), inspected references of all identified studies for further trials and contacted authors of trials for additional information.

Selection criteria: We included reports if they were randomised controlled trials (RCTs) dealing with people with antipsychotic-induced TD and schizophrenia or other chronic mental illnesses who remained on their antipsychotic medication and had been randomly allocated to the interventions listed above versus placebo, no intervention, or any other intervention.

Data collection and analysis: We independently extracted data from these trials and we estimated risk ratios (RR) or mean differences (MD), with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We assumed that people who left early had no improvement. We assessed risk of bias and created 'Summary of findings' tables using GRADE.

Main results: We included 31 RCTs of 24 interventions with 1278 participants; 22 of these trials were newly included in this 2017 update. Five trials are awaiting classification and seven trials are ongoing. All participants were adults with chronic psychiatric disorders, mostly schizophrenia, and antipsychotic-induced TD. Studies were primarily of short (three to six6 weeks) duration with small samples size (10 to 157 participants), and most (61%) were published more than 20 years ago. The overall risk of bias in these studies was unclear, mainly due to poor reporting of allocation concealment, generation of the sequence, and blinding.Nineteen of the 31 included studies reported on the primary outcome 'No clinically important improvement in TD symptoms'. Two studies found moderate-quality evidence of a benefit of the intervention compared with placebo: valbenazine (RR 0.63, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.86, 1 RCT, n = 92) and extract of Ginkgo biloba (RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.81 to 0.96, 1 RCT, n = 157), respectively. However, due to small sample sizes we cannot be certain of these effects.We consider the results for the remaining interventions to be inconclusive: Low- to very low-quality evidence of a benefit was found for buspirone (RR 0.53, 95% CI 0.33 to 0.84, 1 RCT, n = 42), dihydrogenated ergot alkaloids (RR 0.45, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.97, 1 RCT, n = 28), hypnosis or relaxation, (RR 0.45, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.94, 1 study, n = 15), pemoline (RR 0.48, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.77, 1 RCT, n = 46), promethazine (RR 0.24, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.55, 1 RCT, n = 34), insulin (RR 0.52, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.96, 1 RCT, n = 20), branched chain amino acids (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.63 to 1.00, 1 RCT, n = 52), and isocarboxazid (RR 0.24, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.71, 1 RCT, n = 20). There was low- to very low-certainty evidence of no difference between intervention and placebo or no treatment for the following interventions: melatonin (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.12, 2 RCTs, n = 32), lithium (RR 1.59, 95% CI 0.79 to 3.23, 1 RCT, n = 11), ritanserin (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.70 to 1.43, 1 RCT, n = 10), selegiline (RR 1.37, 95% CI 0.96 to 1.94, 1 RCT, n = 33), oestrogen (RR 1.18, 95% CI 0.76 to 1.83, 1 RCT, n = 12), and gamma-linolenic acid (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.69 to 1.45, 1 RCT, n = 16).None of the included studies reported on the other primary outcome, 'no clinically significant extrapyramidal adverse effects'.

Authors' conclusions: This review has found that the use of valbenazine or extract of Ginkgo biloba may be effective in relieving the symptoms of tardive dyskinesia. However, since only one RCT has investigated each one of these compounds, we are awaiting results from ongoing trials to confirm these results. Results for the remaining interventions covered in this review must be considered inconclusive and these compounds probably should only be used within the context of a well-designed evaluative study.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

KSW is the Deputy Editor‐in‐Chief for Cochrane and Cochrane Innovations. When the NHIR HTA programme grant relevant to this review update was awarded, KSW was the Managing Director of Enhance Reviews Ltd.

JR ‐ none known.

HB worked for Enhance Reviews Ltd. during preparation of this review and was paid for her contribution to this review. Enhance Reviews Ltd. is a private company that performs systematic reviews of literature. HB works for Cochrane Response, an evidence consultancy linked to Cochrane that take commissions from healthcare guideline developers and policy makers.

Figures

1
1
Message from one of the participants of the Public and patient involvement consultation of service user perspectives on tardive dyskinesia research.
2
2
Methodological quality summary: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item for each included study.
3
3
'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
4
4
Study flow diagram for 2015 and 2017 searches.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 ALKALOID ‐ DIHYDROGENATED ERGOT ALKALOIDS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 ALKALOID ‐ DIHYDROGENATED ERGOT ALKALOIDS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ medium term.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 ALKALOID ‐ DIHYDROGENATED ERGOT ALKALOIDS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Deterioration ‐ medium term.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 ALKALOID ‐ DIHYDROGENATED ERGOT ALKALOIDS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Average endpoint scale score (Simpson scale, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 ALKALOID ‐ DIHYDROGENATED ERGOT ALKALOIDS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Tardive dyskinesia: Average scale change scores (various scales, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 ALKALOID ‐ DIHYDROGENATED ERGOT ALKALOIDS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Mental state: Deterioration ‐ medium term.
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 ALKALOID ‐ DIHYDROGENATED ERGOT ALKALOIDS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 7 Adverse events ‐ medium term.
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 ALKALOID ‐ DIHYDROGENATED ERGOT ALKALOIDS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 8 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 ALKALOID ‐ L‐STEPHOLIDINE (SPD) versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 ALKALOID ‐ L‐STEPHOLIDINE (SPD) versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Mental state: 1. Average endpoint scale score (BPRS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 ALKALOID ‐ L‐STEPHOLIDINE (SPD) versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Adverse events: any adverse events ‐ medium term.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 ALKALOID ‐ L‐STEPHOLIDINE (SPD) versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 ALKALOID ‐ PAPAVERINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Average scale score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 AMINO ACID ‐ BRANCHED‐CHAIN AMINO ACID (BCAA) versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ short term.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 AMINO ACID ‐ BRANCHED‐CHAIN AMINO ACID (BCAA) versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. Not any improvement ‐ short term.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 AMINO ACID ‐ BRANCHED‐CHAIN AMINO ACID (BCAA) versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Deterioration ‐ short term.
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4 AMINO ACID ‐ BRANCHED‐CHAIN AMINO ACID (BCAA) versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: Average endpoint score (Simpson scale, high=poor) ‐ short term.
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4 AMINO ACID ‐ BRANCHED‐CHAIN AMINO ACID (BCAA) versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Leaving the study early ‐ short term.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 AMINO ACID ‐ PHENYLALANINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Leaving the study early ‐ short term.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 ANTIDEPRESSANT (MAO‐B inhibitor) ‐ SELEGILINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 ANTIDEPRESSANT (MAO‐B inhibitor) ‐ SELEGILINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7 ANTIDEPRESSANT (MAOI) ISOCARBOXAZID versus PROCYCLIDINE, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ long term.
7.2
7.2. Analysis
Comparison 7 ANTIDEPRESSANT (MAOI) ISOCARBOXAZID versus PROCYCLIDINE, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. Not any improvement ‐ long term.
7.3
7.3. Analysis
Comparison 7 ANTIDEPRESSANT (MAOI) ISOCARBOXAZID versus PROCYCLIDINE, Outcome 3 Adverse effects ‐ long term.
7.4
7.4. Analysis
Comparison 7 ANTIDEPRESSANT (MAOI) ISOCARBOXAZID versus PROCYCLIDINE, Outcome 4 Leaving the study early ‐ long term.
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8 ANTIDEPRESSANT (SSRI) ‐ RITANSERIN vs PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: No clinically important improvement (short term).
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8 ANTIDEPRESSANT (SSRI) ‐ RITANSERIN vs PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: Not any improvement (short term).
8.3
8.3. Analysis
Comparison 8 ANTIDEPRESSANT (SSRI) ‐ RITANSERIN vs PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: Deterioration (short term).
8.4
8.4. Analysis
Comparison 8 ANTIDEPRESSANT (SSRI) ‐ RITANSERIN vs PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: Average change score (AIMS, high=poor) (short term).
8.5
8.5. Analysis
Comparison 8 ANTIDEPRESSANT (SSRI) ‐ RITANSERIN vs PLACEBO, Outcome 5 General mental state: Deterioration (short term).
8.6
8.6. Analysis
Comparison 8 ANTIDEPRESSANT (SSRI) ‐ RITANSERIN vs PLACEBO, Outcome 6 General mental state: Average change score (BPRS, high=poor) (short term).
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9 ANTIEPILEPTIC ‐ LEVETIRACETAM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. Average endpoint score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
9.2
9.2. Analysis
Comparison 9 ANTIEPILEPTIC ‐ LEVETIRACETAM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. Average change score (hyperkinesia subscale of the SHRS , high=poor) ‐ medium term.
9.3
9.3. Analysis
Comparison 9 ANTIEPILEPTIC ‐ LEVETIRACETAM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
9.4
9.4. Analysis
Comparison 9 ANTIEPILEPTIC ‐ LEVETIRACETAM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Adverse effects ‐ medium term.
9.5
9.5. Analysis
Comparison 9 ANTIEPILEPTIC ‐ LEVETIRACETAM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Mental state: deterioration ‐ medium term.
10.1
10.1. Analysis
Comparison 10 ANTIHISTAMINE ‐ CYPROHEPTADINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ short term.
10.2
10.2. Analysis
Comparison 10 ANTIHISTAMINE ‐ CYPROHEPTADINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Deterioration ‐ short term.
10.3
10.3. Analysis
Comparison 10 ANTIHISTAMINE ‐ CYPROHEPTADINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Adverse events ‐ short term.
10.4
10.4. Analysis
Comparison 10 ANTIHISTAMINE ‐ CYPROHEPTADINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Leaving the study early ‐ short term.
11.1
11.1. Analysis
Comparison 11 ANTIPSYCHOTIC ‐ PROMETHAZINE vs PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: No clinically important improvement (medium term).
11.2
11.2. Analysis
Comparison 11 ANTIPSYCHOTIC ‐ PROMETHAZINE vs PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: Not any improvement (medium term).
11.3
11.3. Analysis
Comparison 11 ANTIPSYCHOTIC ‐ PROMETHAZINE vs PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: Average endpoint score (AIMS, high=poor) (medium term).
11.4
11.4. Analysis
Comparison 11 ANTIPSYCHOTIC ‐ PROMETHAZINE vs PLACEBO, Outcome 4 General mental state: Average endpoint score (BPRS, high=poor) (medium term).
11.5
11.5. Analysis
Comparison 11 ANTIPSYCHOTIC ‐ PROMETHAZINE vs PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Adverse effects: Any adverse effects (TESS, high=poor) (medium term).
11.6
11.6. Analysis
Comparison 11 ANTIPSYCHOTIC ‐ PROMETHAZINE vs PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Adverse effects: Parkinsonism ‐ Average endpoint score (RSESE) (medium term).
11.7
11.7. Analysis
Comparison 11 ANTIPSYCHOTIC ‐ PROMETHAZINE vs PLACEBO, Outcome 7 Global state: Average endpoint score (CGI, high=poor) (medium term).
12.1
12.1. Analysis
Comparison 12 ANXIOLYTIC ‐ BUSPIRONE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
12.2
12.2. Analysis
Comparison 12 ANXIOLYTIC ‐ BUSPIRONE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ medium term.
12.3
12.3. Analysis
Comparison 12 ANXIOLYTIC ‐ BUSPIRONE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Average scale score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
12.4
12.4. Analysis
Comparison 12 ANXIOLYTIC ‐ BUSPIRONE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
13.1
13.1. Analysis
Comparison 13 COGNITIVE ENHANCER ‐ PIRACETAM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. Average endpoint score (ESRS, high=poor) ‐ short term.
13.2
13.2. Analysis
Comparison 13 COGNITIVE ENHANCER ‐ PIRACETAM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Parkinsonism: 1. Average endpoint score (ESRS, high=poor) ‐ short term.
13.3
13.3. Analysis
Comparison 13 COGNITIVE ENHANCER ‐ PIRACETAM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Leaving the study early ‐ short term.
13.4
13.4. Analysis
Comparison 13 COGNITIVE ENHANCER ‐ PIRACETAM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Global state: Average endpoint score (CGI, high=poor) ‐ short term.
14.1
14.1. Analysis
Comparison 14 COGNITIVE ENHANCER/STIMULANT ‐ PEMOLINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
14.2
14.2. Analysis
Comparison 14 COGNITIVE ENHANCER/STIMULANT ‐ PEMOLINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ medium term.
14.3
14.3. Analysis
Comparison 14 COGNITIVE ENHANCER/STIMULANT ‐ PEMOLINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Average scale score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
14.4
14.4. Analysis
Comparison 14 COGNITIVE ENHANCER/STIMULANT ‐ PEMOLINE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
15.1
15.1. Analysis
Comparison 15 ENZYME INHIBITOR ‐ VMAT2 INHIBITORS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
15.2
15.2. Analysis
Comparison 15 ENZYME INHIBITOR ‐ VMAT2 INHIBITORS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Average change score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
15.3
15.3. Analysis
Comparison 15 ENZYME INHIBITOR ‐ VMAT2 INHIBITORS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Adverse events ‐ medium term.
15.4
15.4. Analysis
Comparison 15 ENZYME INHIBITOR ‐ VMAT2 INHIBITORS versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
16.1
16.1. Analysis
Comparison 16 FATTY ACID ‐ ETHYL EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
16.2
16.2. Analysis
Comparison 16 FATTY ACID ‐ ETHYL EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Mental state: deterioration ‐ medium term.
16.3
16.3. Analysis
Comparison 16 FATTY ACID ‐ ETHYL EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Adverse events: Parkinsonism ‐ Average change in scale score (ESRS, low=better) ‐ medium term.
16.4
16.4. Analysis
Comparison 16 FATTY ACID ‐ ETHYL EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Adverse events: Dystonia ‐ Average change in scale score (ESRS, low=better) ‐ medium term.
16.5
16.5. Analysis
Comparison 16 FATTY ACID ‐ ETHYL EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Adverse events: Akathisia ‐ Average change in scale score (ESRS, low=better) ‐ medium term.
16.6
16.6. Analysis
Comparison 16 FATTY ACID ‐ ETHYL EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
17.1
17.1. Analysis
Comparison 17 FATTY ACID ‐ GAMMA‐LINOLENIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
17.2
17.2. Analysis
Comparison 17 FATTY ACID ‐ GAMMA‐LINOLENIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ medium term.
17.3
17.3. Analysis
Comparison 17 FATTY ACID ‐ GAMMA‐LINOLENIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Deterioration ‐ medium term.
17.4
17.4. Analysis
Comparison 17 FATTY ACID ‐ GAMMA‐LINOLENIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. Average change in scale score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
17.5
17.5. Analysis
Comparison 17 FATTY ACID ‐ GAMMA‐LINOLENIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Mental state: 2. Average change in scale score (BPRS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
17.6
17.6. Analysis
Comparison 17 FATTY ACID ‐ GAMMA‐LINOLENIC ACID versus PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
18.1
18.1. Analysis
Comparison 18 HERB ‐ GINKGO BILOBA versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
18.2
18.2. Analysis
Comparison 18 HERB ‐ GINKGO BILOBA versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ medium term.
18.3
18.3. Analysis
Comparison 18 HERB ‐ GINKGO BILOBA versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Average scale score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
18.4
18.4. Analysis
Comparison 18 HERB ‐ GINKGO BILOBA versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
18.5
18.5. Analysis
Comparison 18 HERB ‐ GINKGO BILOBA versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Mental state: deterioration ‐ medium term.
18.6
18.6. Analysis
Comparison 18 HERB ‐ GINKGO BILOBA versus PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Mental state: 1. Average endpoint scale score (PANSS total, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
18.7
18.7. Analysis
Comparison 18 HERB ‐ GINKGO BILOBA versus PLACEBO, Outcome 7 Cognitive function: CPT‐37 ‐ proportion correct responses (high=better) ‐ medium term.
19.1
19.1. Analysis
Comparison 19 HORMONE ‐ OESTROGEN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ short term.
19.2
19.2. Analysis
Comparison 19 HORMONE ‐ OESTROGEN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ short term.
19.3
19.3. Analysis
Comparison 19 HORMONE ‐ OESTROGEN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Deterioration ‐ short term.
19.4
19.4. Analysis
Comparison 19 HORMONE ‐ OESTROGEN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: 4. Average scale score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ short term.
19.5
19.5. Analysis
Comparison 19 HORMONE ‐ OESTROGEN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Adverse effects ‐ short term.
19.6
19.6. Analysis
Comparison 19 HORMONE ‐ OESTROGEN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Leaving the study early ‐ short term.
20.1
20.1. Analysis
Comparison 20 HORMONE ‐ INSULIN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
20.2
20.2. Analysis
Comparison 20 HORMONE ‐ INSULIN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ medium term.
20.3
20.3. Analysis
Comparison 20 HORMONE ‐ INSULIN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Deterioration ‐ medium term.
20.4
20.4. Analysis
Comparison 20 HORMONE ‐ INSULIN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Average scale score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
20.5
20.5. Analysis
Comparison 20 HORMONE ‐ INSULIN versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
21.1
21.1. Analysis
Comparison 21 HORMONE ‐ MELATONIN versus PLACEBO OR NO TREATMENT, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement.
21.2
21.2. Analysis
Comparison 21 HORMONE ‐ MELATONIN versus PLACEBO OR NO TREATMENT, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ short term.
21.3
21.3. Analysis
Comparison 21 HORMONE ‐ MELATONIN versus PLACEBO OR NO TREATMENT, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Deterioration ‐ short term.
21.4
21.4. Analysis
Comparison 21 HORMONE ‐ MELATONIN versus PLACEBO OR NO TREATMENT, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Average scale score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ medium term.
21.5
21.5. Analysis
Comparison 21 HORMONE ‐ MELATONIN versus PLACEBO OR NO TREATMENT, Outcome 5 Adverse effects.
21.6
21.6. Analysis
Comparison 21 HORMONE ‐ MELATONIN versus PLACEBO OR NO TREATMENT, Outcome 6 Leaving the study early.
21.7
21.7. Analysis
Comparison 21 HORMONE ‐ MELATONIN versus PLACEBO OR NO TREATMENT, Outcome 7 Cognitive function: Average scale score ‐ medium term.
21.8
21.8. Analysis
Comparison 21 HORMONE ‐ MELATONIN versus PLACEBO OR NO TREATMENT, Outcome 8 Mental state: deterioration ‐ medium term.
22.1
22.1. Analysis
Comparison 22 MOOD STABILISER ‐ LITHIUM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ short term.
22.2
22.2. Analysis
Comparison 22 MOOD STABILISER ‐ LITHIUM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ short term.
22.3
22.3. Analysis
Comparison 22 MOOD STABILISER ‐ LITHIUM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Deterioration ‐ short term.
22.4
22.4. Analysis
Comparison 22 MOOD STABILISER ‐ LITHIUM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Average scale score (AIMS, high=poor) ‐ short term.
22.5
22.5. Analysis
Comparison 22 MOOD STABILISER ‐ LITHIUM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 5 Adverse events ‐ short term.
22.6
22.6. Analysis
Comparison 22 MOOD STABILISER ‐ LITHIUM versus PLACEBO, Outcome 6 Leaving the study early ‐ short term.
23.1
23.1. Analysis
Comparison 23 POLYPEPTIDE ‐ CERULETIDE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. Not any improvement.
23.2
23.2. Analysis
Comparison 23 POLYPEPTIDE ‐ CERULETIDE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Deterioration.
23.3
23.3. Analysis
Comparison 23 POLYPEPTIDE ‐ CERULETIDE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 3 Adverse effects.
23.4
23.4. Analysis
Comparison 23 POLYPEPTIDE ‐ CERULETIDE versus PLACEBO, Outcome 4 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
24.1
24.1. Analysis
Comparison 24 HYPNOSIS OR RELAXATION versus TREATMENT AS USUAL, Outcome 1 Tardive dyskinesia: 1. No clinically important improvement ‐ medium term.
24.2
24.2. Analysis
Comparison 24 HYPNOSIS OR RELAXATION versus TREATMENT AS USUAL, Outcome 2 Tardive dyskinesia: 2. Not any improvement ‐ medium term.
24.3
24.3. Analysis
Comparison 24 HYPNOSIS OR RELAXATION versus TREATMENT AS USUAL, Outcome 3 Tardive dyskinesia: 3. Deterioration ‐ medium term.
24.4
24.4. Analysis
Comparison 24 HYPNOSIS OR RELAXATION versus TREATMENT AS USUAL, Outcome 4 Leaving the study early ‐ medium term.
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Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

Bucci 1971 {published data only}
    1. Bucci L. The dyskinesias: a new approach. Diseases of the Nervous System 1971;32(5):324‐7. - PubMed
Cai 1988 {published data only}
    1. Cai N. A controlled study on the treatment of tardive dyskinesia using 1‐stepholidine. Chinese Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry 1988;21(5):281‐3. - PubMed
Castro 2011 {published data only}
    1. Castro F, Carrizo E, Prieto de Rincon D, Rincon CA, Asian T, Medina‐Leendertz S, et al. Effectiveness of melatonin in tardive dyskinesia. Investigación Clínica 2011;52(3):252‐60. - PubMed
Emsley 2006 {published data only}
    1. Elmsley R, Oosthuizen PP. Double‐blind, randomized, parallel‐group comparison of ethyl‐eicosapentaenoic acid (ethyl‐EP A) versus placebo as add‐on medication in 84 patients with established tardive dyskinesia. Stanley Foundation Research Programs 2002.
    1. Emsley R. A double‐blind, randomised, parallel‐group comparison of ethyl‐eicosapentaenoic acid (ethyl‐epa) versus placebo as add‐on medication in patients with established tardive dyskinesia. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00114595 2005.
    1. Emsley R. Ethyl eicosapentanoic acid for tardive dyskinesia. Stanley Foundation Research Programs 2009.
    1. Emsley R, Niehaus DJH, Koen L, Oosthuizen PP, Turner HJ, Carey P, et al. The effects of eicosapentaenoic acid in tardive dyskinesia: a randomized, placebo‐controlled trial. Schizophrenia Research 2006;84(1):112‐20. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Emsley R, Niehaus DJH, Oosthuizen PP, Koen L, Ascott‐Evans B, Chiliza B, et al. Safety of the omega‐3 fatty acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in psychiatric patients: results from a randomized, placebo‐controlled trial. Psychiatry Research 2008;161(3):284‐91. - PubMed
Gardos 1979 {published data only}
    1. Gardos G, Granacher RP, Cole JO, Sniffin C. The effects of papaverine in tardive dyskinesia. Progress in Neuro‐Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 1979;3(5‐6):543‐50. - PubMed
Glazer 1985 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Glazer WM, Naftolin F, Morgenstern H, Barnea ER, MacLusky NJ, Brenner LM. Estrogen replacement and tardive dyskinesia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1985;10(3):345‐50. - PubMed
Glover 1980 {published data only}
    1. Glover O. Alternative treatment modalities for drug induced psychomotor dysfunctions. PhD dissertation submitted to the Wright Institute 1980:150.
Goff 1993 {published data only}
    1. Goff DC, Renshaw PF, Sarid‐Segal O, Dreyfuss DA, Amico ET, Ciraulo DA. A placebo‐controlled trial of selegiline (L‐deprenyl) in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Biological Psychiatry 1993;33(10):700‐6. - PubMed
Hajioff 1983 {published data only}
    1. Hajioff J, Wallace M. Effect of Co‐dergocrine mesylate on tardive dyskinesia. A preliminary report. Psychopharmacology 1983;79(1):1‐3. - PubMed
Kojima 1992 {published data only}
    1. Kojima T, Yamauchi T, Miyasaka M, Isaki K, Nakane Y, Takahashi R, et al. Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with ceruletide: a double‐blind placebo‐controlled study. Saishin‐Igaku 1989;44(10):2177‐88. - PubMed
    1. Kojima T, Yamauchi T, Miyasaka M, Koshino Y, Nakane Y, Takahashi R, et al. Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with ceruletide: a double‐blind, placebo‐controlled study. Psychiatry Research 1992;43(2):129‐36. - PubMed
Koshino 1979 {published data only}
    1. Koshino Y, Kurata K, Hosokawa K, Yamaguchi N. Double‐blind trial of cyproheptadine on neuroleptic induced tardive dyskinesia. Clinical Psychiatry [Seishin Igaku] 1979;21(4):421‐6.
Koshino 1983 {published data only}
    1. Koshino Y, Hiramatsu H, Isaki K, Yamaguchi N. A double‐blind clinical trial of dihydrogenated ergot alkaloids in antipsychotic‐induced tardive dyskinesia. Clinical Psychiatry [Seishin Igaku] 1983;25(6):627‐35.
Libov 2007 {published data only}
    1. Anon. Piracetam reduces TD symptomstardive dyskinesia. Brown University Psychopharmacology Update 2007;18(11):3‐4.
    1. Lerner V. Piracetam for tardive dyskinesia. Stanley Foundation Research Programs 2009.
    1. Libov I, Miodownik C, Bersudsky Y, Dwolatzky T, Lerner V. Efficacy of piracetam in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenic patients: a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled crossover study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2007;68(7):1031‐7. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. NCT00190008. Therapeutic use of piracetam for treatment of patients suffering from tardive dyskinesia ‐ a double blind, placebo‐controlled crossover study. http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. 2005.
Mackay 1980 {published data only}
    1. Mackay AVP, Sheppard GP, Saha BK, Motley B, Johnson L, Marsden CD. Failure of lithium treatment in established tardive dyskinesia. Psychological Medicine 1980;10(3):583‐7. - PubMed
Matsunaga 1988 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Matsunaga T, Ohyama S, Takehara S, Kabashima K, Moriyama S, Tsuzuki J, et al. The effect of ceruletide on tardive dyskinesia: a double‐blind placebo‐controlled study. Progress in Neuro‐Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 1988;12(4):533‐9. - PubMed
Meco 1989 {published data only}
    1. Meco G, Bedini L, Bonifati V, Sonsini U. Ritanserin in tardive dyskinesia: A double‐blind crossover study versus placebo. Current Therapeutics Research 1989;46(5):884‐94.
Mosnik 1997 {published data only}
    1. Mosnik DM. Phenylalanine loading effects on tardive dyskinesia severity in schizophrenics. Master of Science dissertation submitted to the Finch University of Health Sciences, USA. 1994.
    1. Mosnik DM, Spring B, Rogers K, Baruah S. Tardive dyskinesia exacerbated after ingestion of phenylalanine by schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997;16(2):136‐46. - PubMed
    1. Mosnik DM, Spring B, Rogers K, Baruah S, Waziri R. Phenylalanine loading effects on tardive dyskinesia severity in schizophrenics. Schizophrenia Research 1995;15(1, 2):208.
Mouret 1991 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Mouret J, Khomais M, Lemoine P, Sebert P. Low doses of insulin as a treatment of tardive dyskinesia: conjuncture or conjecture?. European Neurology 1991;31(4):199‐203. - PubMed
O'Brien 2014 {published data only}
    1. Factor S, Hauser R, Mandri D, Castro‐Gayol J, Jimenez R, Siegert S, et al. A Phase 2 Study of valbenazine (NBI‐98854) for treatment of tardive dyskinesia: KINECT 2. Neurology 2016;86(16 SUPPL. 1):S27.007.
    1. NCT01733121. Nbi‐98854 dose titration study for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. http://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01733121 (accessed on 6 October 2017) 2012.
    1. O'Brien CF, Jimenez R, Hauser RA, Factor SA, Burke J, Mandri D, et al. NBI‐98854, A selective monoamine transport inhibitor for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: A randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled study. Movement Disorders 2015;30(12):1681‐7. - PMC - PubMed
    1. O'Brien CF, Jimenez R, Hauser RA, Factor SA, Mandri DF, Castro‐Gyol JC. Kinect 2: NBI‐98854 treatment of moderate to severe tardive dyskinesia. 18th International Congress of Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders, Stockholm, Sweden June 8‐12 2014;29:S305‐S306.
Rastogi 1982 {published data only}
    1. Rastogi SC, Blowers AJ, Gibson AC. Co‐dergocrine (hydergine) in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Psychological Medicine 1982;12(2):427‐9. - PubMed
Richardson 2003 {published data only}
    1. Richardson MA, Bevans ML, Read LL, Chao HM, Clelland JD, Suckow RF, et al. Efficacy of the branched‐chain amino acids in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia in men. American Journal of Psychiatry 2003;160(6):1117‐24. - PubMed
Shamir 2000 {published data only}
    1. Shamir E, Barak Y, Plopsky I, Zisapel N, Elizur A, Weizman A. Is melatonin treatment effective for tardive dyskinesia?. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2000;61(8):556‐8. - PubMed
Shamir 2001 {published data only}
    1. Shamir EZ, Barak F, Shalman I, Landon N, Zisapel N, Elizur A, et al. Melatonin treatment for tardive dyskinesia: a double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, cross‐over study. Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 2001 May 5‐10; LA, USA. 2001.
    1. Shamir EZ, Barak F, Shalman I, Landon N, Zisapel N, Elizur A, et al. Melatonin treatment for tardive dyskinesia: a double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, cross‐over study. Archives of General Psychiatry 2001;58:1049‐52. - PubMed
Shi 2009 {published data only}
    1. Shi X, Zhu F, Zhang X, Zjang J, Zhang X, Wei L, et al. Melatonin in treatment of schizophrenia with tardive dyskinesia: A comparison study of cognitive function. Linchuang Jingshen Yixue Zazhi 2009;19(6):391‐3.
UCB Pharma 2005 {published data only}
    1. NCT00175955. An 8‐week exploratory, double‐blind, placebo controlled, randomized trial ‐ evaluation of the efficacy and safety of levetiracetam up to 3000 mg/day (250‐500 mg oral tablets in bid administration) on neuroleptic‐induced tardive dyskinesia in subjects with stable axis I psychiatric disorder, aged from at least 18 years to 80 years. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00175955 2005.
Wolkin 1986 {published data only}
    1. Wolkin A, Jordan B, Peselow E, Rubinstein M, Rotrosen J. Essential fatty acid supplementation in tardive dyskinesia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1986;143(7):912‐4. - PubMed
Woods 2008 {published data only}
    1. NCT00291213. Levetiracetam treatment of tardive dyskinesia. www.Clinical Trials.gov (https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00291213) 2006.
    1. Woods SW, Saksa JR, Baker CB, Cohen SJ, Tek C. Effects of levetiracetam on tardive dyskinesia: A randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2008;69(4):546‐54. - PubMed
Yang 1999 {published data only}
    1. Yang X, Meng F, Cui Y, Yang P, Liu R, Ma L, et al. Promethazine treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a double blind placebo controlled study. Chinese Mental Health Journal 1999;13:365‐7.
Zeng 1995 {published data only}
    1. Zeng Z‐X. Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with buspirone. Medical Journal of Chinese Civil Administration 1995;7:202‐3.
Zeng 1996 {published data only}
    1. Zeng ZX. Pemoline in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Chinese Journal of New Drugs and Clinical Remedies 1996;15:240‐1.
Zhang 2011 {published data only}
    1. NCT00672373. Extract of ginkgo biloba and tardive dyskinesia. www.ClinicalTrials.gov (https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00672373?term=NCT00672373&rank=1) 2008.
    1. Zhang F, Bigos K, Weinberger D. Genome‐wide analysis of antipsychotic drug response in schizophrenia. Proceedings of the 50th Annual Meeting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology; 2011 Dec 4‐8; Waikoloa, Hawaii. 2011; Vol. 50:135.
    1. Zhang WF, Tan YL, Zhang XY, Chan RC, Wu HR, Zhou DF. Extract of Ginkgo biloba treatment for tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia: a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2011;72(5):615‐21. [DOI: 10.4088/JCP.09m05125yel] - DOI - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Apseloff 2000 {published data only}
    1. Apseloff G, Mullet D, Wilner KD, Anziano RJ, Tensfeldt TG, Pelletier SM, et al. The effects of ziprasidone on steady‐state lithium levels and renal clearance of lithium. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2000;49(S1):61‐4S. - PMC - PubMed
Bjorndal 1980 {published data only}
    1. Bjorndal N, Casey DE, Gerlach J. Enkephalin, morphine, and naxoxone in tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology 1980;69:133‐6. - PubMed
Blum 1984 {published data only}
    1. Blum I, Munitz H, Shalev A, Roberts E. Naloxone may be beneficial in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Clinical Neuropharmacology 1984;7(3):265‐7. - PubMed
    1. Blum I, Nisipeanu PF, Roberts E. Naloxone in tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology Berlin 1987;93(4):538. - PubMed
Bockenheimer 1976 {published data only}
    1. Bockenheimer S, Lucius G. Deanol in tardive dyskinesia: a double‐blind study [Zur Therapie mit Dimethylaminoathanol (Deanol) bei neuroleptikainduzierten extrapyramidalen Hyperkinesen]. Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 1976;222(1):69‐75. - PubMed
Bowers 1979 {published data only}
    1. Bowers MB Jr, Moore D, Tarsy D. Tardive dyskinesia: a clinical test of the supersensitivity hypothesis. Psychopharmacology Berlin 1979;61(2):137‐1. - PubMed
Casey 1981 {published data only}
    1. Blum I, Nisipeanu PF, Roberts E, Casey DE, Korsgaard S, Gerlach J. Des‐tyr‐gamma‐endorphin in tardive dyskinesia. Proceedings of the 3rd World Congress of Biological Psychiatry 1981 Jun 28‐Jul 3; Stockholm, Sweden;93:538.
    1. Casey DE, Korsgaard S, Gerlach J. Des‐tyr‐gamma‐endorphin in tardive dyskinesia. Proceedings of the World Congress of Biological Psychiatry; 1981 June 28‐ July 3rd; Stockholm, Sweden. 1981.
    1. Casey DE, Korsgaard S, Gerlach J, Jorgensen A, Simmelsgaard H. Effect of des‐tyrosine‐gamma ‐endorphin in tardive dyskinesia. Archives of General Psychiatry 1981;38(2):158‐60. - PubMed
Chaplin 2002 {published data only}
    1. Chaplin R, Kent A. Informing patients about tardive dyskinesia: controlled trial of patient education. British Journal of Psychiatry 1998;172:78‐81. - PubMed
    1. Chaplin R, Timehin C. Informing patients about tardive dyskinesia: Four‐year follow up of a trial of patient education. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2002;36(1):99‐103. [DOI: ] - PubMed
    1. Chaplin R, Zipursky RB. An educational session on tardive dyskinesia increased patients' knowledge at 6 months without affecting compliance or clinical stability. Evidence‐Based Medicine 1998;3:153.
Emsley 2002 {published data only}
    1. Emsley R, Myburgh C, Oosthuizen P, Rensburg SJ. Randomized, placebo‐controlled study of ethyl‐eicosapentaenoic acid as supplemental treatment in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2002;159(9):1596‐8. - PubMed
Fann 1973 {published data only}
    1. Fann WE, Davis JM, Wilson IC. Methylphenidate in tardive dyskinesia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1973;130(8):922‐4. - PubMed
Fudge 1991 {published data only}
    1. Fudge RC, Thailer SA, Alpert M, Intrator J, Sison CE. The effects of electromyographic feedback training on suppression of the oral‐lingual movements associated with tardive dyskinesia. Biofeedback and Self‐Regulation 1991;16(2):117‐29. - PubMed
Gardos 1978 {published data only}
    1. Gardos G, Cole JO. Pilot study of cyproheptadine (Periactin) in tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacolgy Bulletin 1978;14(2):18‐20. - PubMed
Gerlach 1975 {published data only}
    1. Gerlach J, Thorsen K, Munkvad I. Effect of lithium on neuroleptic‐induced tardive dyskinesia compared with placebo in a double‐blind cross‐over trial. Pharmakopsychiatrie, Neuro‐Psychopharmakologie 1975;8(2):51‐6. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0028-1094443] - DOI - PubMed
Goetz 2013 {published data only}
    1. Goetz C, Stebbins G, Chung K, Hauser R, Miyasaki J, Nicholas A, et al. No PD dyskinesia scale protects against placebo responses: A comparison of multiple scales. Neurology 2013;80(7):Supplement P04.187.
    1. Goetz CG, Stebbins GT, Chung KA, Hauser RA, Miyasaki JM, Nicholas AP, et al. No PD dyskinesia scale protects against placebo responses: A comparison of seven scales. Movement disorders 2013;28:S115‐6. - PubMed
Huang 1981 {published data only}
    1. Huang CC, Wang RIH, Hasegawa A, Alverno L. Evaluation of reserpine and alpha‐methyldopa in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1980;16:41‐3. - PubMed
    1. Huang CC, Wang RIH, Hasegawa A, Alverno L. Reserpine and alpha‐methyldopa in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology 1981;73:359‐62. - PubMed
Jus 1974 {published data only}
    1. Jus K, Jus A, Gautier J, Villeneuve A, Pires P, Pineau R, et al. Studies on the action of certain pharmacological agents on tardive dykinesia and on the rabbit syndrome. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1974;9(2):138‐45. - PubMed
Jus 1978 {published data only}
    1. Jus A, Villeneuve A, Gautier J, Jus C, Villeneuve P, Pires P, et al. Deanol, lithium and placebo in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: A double‐blind crossover study. Neuropsychobiology 1978;4:140‐9. - PubMed
Kabes 1982 {published data only}
    1. Kabes J, Sikora J Pisvejc J Skoudia V. Piracetam action in neuroleptic induced extrapyramidal side‐effects. Proceedings of the 12th CINP congress; Supplement to Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology. Pergamon Press, 1980.
    1. Kabes J, Sikora J, Pisvejc J, Hanzlicek L, Skondia V. Effect of piracetam on extrapyramidal side effects induced by neuroleptic drugs. International Pharmacopsychiatry 1982;17(3):185‐92. - PubMed
    1. Kabes J, Sikora J, Pisvejc J, Skoudia V. Piracetam action in neuroleptic induced extrapyramidal side‐effects. Proceedings of the 12th Collegium Internationale Neuro‐Psychopharmacologicum Congress; 1980 Jun 22‐26; Goteborg, Sweden. 1980.
    1. Kabes J, Sikora J, Stary O, Piisvejc J, Hanzlicek L. Piracetam effectivity in tardive dyskinesia. A double‐blind placebo‐controlled cross‐over trial. Ceskoslovenska Psychiatrie 1983;79(5):339‐45. - PubMed
    1. Sikora J, Kabes J, Pisvejc J. Management of neuroleptic side‐effects with piracetam. Ceskoslovenska Psychiatrie 1981;77(2):137‐42. - PubMed
Kabes 1985 {published data only}
    1. Kabes J, Sikora J, Stary O, Pisvejc J. Dose‐dependent effect of piracetam in tardive‐dyskinesia ‐ double‐blind placebo controlled trial. Activitas Nervosa Superior 1985;27(1):64‐6.
Koller 1982 {published data only}
    1. Koller WC, Barr A, Biary N. Estrogen treatment of dyskinetic disorders. Neurology 1982;32(5):547‐9. - PubMed
Korsgaard 1981 {published data only}
    1. Korsgaard S, Casey DE, Damgaard‐Pedersen NE, Jorgensen A, Gerlach J. Vasopressin in anergic schizophrenia: a cross‐over study with lysine‐8‐vasopressin and placebo. Psychopharmacology 1981;74(4):379‐82. - PubMed
Lieberman 1987 {published data only}
    1. Lieberman JA, Kane JM, Sarantakos S, Gadaleta D, Woerner M, Alvir J, et al. Prediction of relapse in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 1987;44:597‐603. - PubMed
Lieberman 1994 {published data only}
    1. Lieberman JA, Alvir J, Geisler S, Ramos Lorenzi J, Woerner M, Novacenko H, et al. Methylphenidate response, psychopathology and tardive dyskinesia as predictors of relapse in schizophrenia. Neuropyschopharmacology 1994;11:107‐18. - PubMed
Lindenmayer 1988 {published data only}
    1. Lindenmayer JP, Gardner E, Goldberg E, Opler LA, Kay SR, Praag HM, et al. High‐dose naloxone in tardive dyskinesia. Psychiatry Research 1988;26(1):19‐28. - PubMed
Moore 1980 {published data only}
    1. Moore DC, Bowers MB. Identification of a subgroup of tardive dyskinesia patients by pharmacologic probes. American Journal of Psychiatry 1980;137(10):1202‐5. - PubMed
Nasrallah 1986 {published data only}
    1. Nasrallah HA, Dunner FJ, McCalley Whitters M, Smith RE. Pharmacologic probes of neurotransmitter systems in tardive dyskinesia: implications for clinical management. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1986;47(2):56‐9. - PubMed
Peselow 1989 {published data only}
    1. Peselow ED, Irons S, Rotrosen J, Alonso MT, Dorsey F. GM1 ganglioside as a potential treatment in tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1989;25(2):277‐80. - PubMed
    1. Sommer BR, Cohen BM, Satlin A, Cole JO, Jandorf L, Dorsey F. Changes in tardive dyskinesia symptoms in elderly patients treated with ganglioside GM1 or placebo. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology 1994;7:234‐7. - PubMed
Prange 1973 {published data only}
    1. Prange A, Wilson JC, Morris CE, Hall CD. Preliminary experience with tryptophan and lithium in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 1973;9:36‐7.
Reda 1974 {published data only}
    1. Reda FA, Escobar JJ, Scanlon JM. Lithium carbonate in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1975;132:560‐2. - PubMed
    1. Reda FA, Scanlon JM, Kem K, Escobar JJ. Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with lithium carbonate. New England Journal of Medicine 1974;291:850. - PubMed
Reker 1982 {published data only}
    1. Reker D, Anderson B, Yackulic C, Cooper TB, Banay‐Schwartz M, Leon C, et al. Naloxone, tardive dyskinesia, and endogenous beta‐endorphin. Psychiatry Research 1982;7(3):321‐4. - PubMed
    1. Volavka J, Anderson B, Koz G. Naloxone and naltrexone in mental illness and tardive dyskinesia. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences 1982;398:97‐102. - PubMed
Shah 2012 {published data only}
    1. Shah BB, Connolly B, Mestre TA, Prashanth LK, Miyasaki JM, Steeves T, et al. Famotidine for the treatment of levodopa‐induced dyskinesia: An ongoing "N‐of‐1'' Study. 26th Annual Symposium on Etiology, Pathogenesis and Treatment of Movement Disorders. 2012.
Simpson 1976 a {published data only}
    1. Simpson GM, Branchey MH, Lee JH, Voitashevsky A, Zoubok B. Lithium in tardive dyskinesia. Pharmakopsychiatrie neuro‐psychopharmakologie 1976;9(2):76‐80. - PubMed
Simpson 1976 b {published data only}
    1. Simpson GM, Zoubok B, Lee JH. An early clinical and toxicity trial of EX 11‐582A in chronic schizophrenia. Current Therapeutic Research 1976;19(1):87‐98. - PubMed
Tamminga 1983 {published data only}
    1. Nguyen JA, Thaker GK, Tamminga CA. Gamma‐aminobutyric‐acid (GABA) pathways in tardive dyskinesia. Psychiatric Annals 1989;19(6):302‐9.
    1. Tamminga CA, Thaker GK, Ferraro TN, Hare TA. GABA agonist treatment improves tardive dyskinesia. Lancet 1983;2:97‐8. - PubMed
    1. Tamminga CA, Thaker GK, Goldberg ST. Tardive dyskinesia: GABA agonist treatment. In: Usdin E, Carlsson A, Dahlstrom A, Engel J editor(s). Catecholamines: Neuropharmacology and Central Nervous System ‐ Therapeutic Aspects. New York: Alan R Liss, 1994.
Vaddadi 1989 {published data only}
    1. Vaddadi KS, Courtney P, Gilleard CJ, Manku M. A double blind trial of essential fatty acid supplementation in patients with tardive dyskinesia. Psychiatry Research 1989;27(3):313‐23. - PubMed
    1. Vaddadi KS, Gileard CJ. Essential fatty acids, tardive dyskinesia, and schizophrenia. Pathophysiology and Roles in Clinical Medicine. Wiley‐Liss, 1990:333‐43.
Vaddadi 2002 {published data only}
    1. Vaddadi KS, Soosai E, Chiu E, Dingjan P. A randomised, placebo‐controlled, double blind study of treatment of Huntington's disease with unsaturated fatty acids. Neuroreport 2002;13(1):29‐33. - PubMed
Villeneuve 1970 {published data only}
    1. Villeneuve A, Böszörményi Z. Treatment of drug‐induced dyskinesias. Lancet 1970. - PubMed
Villeneuve 1980 {published data only}
    1. Villeneuve A, Cazejust T, Cote M. Estrogens in tardive dyskinesia in male psychiatric patients. Neuropsychobiology 1980;6(3):145‐51. - PubMed
Volavka 1986 {published data only}
    1. Volavka J, O'Donnell J, Muragali R, Anderson BG, Gaztanaga P, Boggiano W, et al. Lithium and lecithin in tardive dyskinesia: an update. Psychiatry Research 1986;19(2):101‐4. - PubMed
Wonodi 2004 {published data only}
    1. Wonodi I, Adami H, Sherr J, Avila M, Hong LE, Thaker GK. Naltrexone treatment of tardive dyskinesia in patients with schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 2004;24(4):441‐5. - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Fernandez 2016 {published data only}
    1. EUCTR‐003135‐19‐PL. A randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, fixed‐dose study of sd‐809 (deutetrabenazine) for the treatment of moderate to severe tardive dyskinesia ‐ addressing involuntary movements in tardive dyskinesia (aim‐td) study. http://apps.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=EUCTR2014‐003135‐19‐PL 2014.
    1. Fernandez HH, Factor SA, Hauser RA, Jimenez‐Shahed J, Ondo W, LeDoux MS, et al. A randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial of deutetrabenazine for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia (ARM‐TD). Movement Disorders 2016;31:S294.
    1. NCT02195700. A randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled study of SD‐809 (Deutetrabenazine) for the treatment of moderate to severe tardive dyskinesia. www.Clinicaltrials.gov 2014.
Hauser 2016 {published data only}
    1. Factor SA, Hauser RA, Siegert S, Liang GS, O'Brien CF. KINECT 3: A randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled phase 3 trial of valbenazine (NBI‐98854) for tardive dyskinesia. Movement Disorders 2016;31:S692.
    1. Grigoriadis D, Comella C, Remington G, Jimenez R, Burke J, Christopher O. Efficacy of Valbenazine (NBI‐98854) in in subjects with tardive dyskinesia: results of a long‐term extension study (KINECT 3 Extension). Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;41:S213‐4.
    1. Hauser R, Factor S, Marder S, Knesevich MA, Ramirez PM, Jimenez R, et al. KINECT 3: A randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled phase 3 trial of valbenazine (NBI‐98854) for tardivedyskinesia. Neurology. 68th American Academy of Neurology Annual Meeting, 2016; Vol. 86 (16 SUPPL. 1).
    1. NCT02274558. A phase 3 study of NBI‐98854 for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02274558 (accessed on 6 October 2017) 2014.
NCT01393600 2011 {published data only}
    1. NCT01393600. Nbi‐98854 for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia in subjects with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. www.Clinicaltrials.gov 2011.
Pattojoshi 2016 {published data only}
    1. Pattojoshi A, Khan AH, Lavania S. Effect of right DLPFC‐repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on tardive dyskinesia in patients with psychosis. Movement Disorders 2016;31:S691‐2.
Xu 2012 {published data only}
    1. Xu X. A randomized controlled study of Ginkgo biloba extract on tardive dyskinesia [银杏叶提取物治疗迟发性运动障碍的随机对照研究]. Journal of Chinese Physician 2012;14(6):843‐845.

References to ongoing studies

Garcia 1992 {published data only}
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ISRCTN14688109 2015 {published data only}
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NCT00621634 2008 {published data only}
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NCT01391390 2011 {published data only}
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NCT01688037 2012 {published data only}
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NCT01804920 2013 {published data only}
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NCT02291861 2014 {published data only}
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References to other published versions of this review

McGrath 2000
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