Insights on Localized and Systemic Delivery of Redox-Based Therapeutics

Abstract

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species are indispensable in cellular physiology and signaling. Overproduction of these reactive species or failure to maintain their levels within the physiological range results in cellular redox dysfunction, often termed cellular oxidative stress. Redox dysfunction in turn is at the molecular basis of disease etiology and progression. Accordingly, antioxidant intervention to restore redox homeostasis has been pursued as a therapeutic strategy for cardiovascular disease, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders among many others. Despite preliminary success in cellular and animal models, redox-based interventions have virtually been ineffective in clinical trials. We propose the fundamental reason for their failure is a flawed delivery approach. Namely, systemic delivery for a geographically local disease limits the effectiveness of the antioxidant. We take a critical look at the literature and evaluate successful and unsuccessful approaches to translation of redox intervention to the clinical arena, including dose, patient selection, and delivery approach. We argue that when interpreting a failed antioxidant-based clinical trial, it is crucial to take into account these variables and importantly, whether the drug had an effect on the redox status. Finally, we propose that local and targeted delivery hold promise to translate redox-based therapies from the bench to the bedside.

Figure 1

A scheme depicting cellular sites of action of several redox interventions. ARE/EpRE: antioxidant response element/electrophile responsive element; CoQ10: coenzyme Q10; CXA-10: 10-nitro-oleic-acid formulation; DMF: dimethyl fumarate; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; GKT: GKT137831; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GSH: glutathione; IAB: N-iodoacetyl-N-biotinylhexylenediamine; MnP: manganese porphyrins; NAC: N-acetylcysteine; NOS: nitric oxide synthase; NOX: NADPH oxidase; NQO1: NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1; Nrf2: nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; RNS: reactive nitrogen species; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SFN: sulforaphane; SOD: superoxide dismutase.