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Meta-Analysis
. 2018 May 31;5(5):CD001261.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD001261.pub4.

Vaccines for preventing typhoid fever

Rachael Milligan  1 , Mical Paul, Marty Richardson, Ami Neuberger
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Vaccines for preventing typhoid fever

Rachael Milligan et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever continue to be important causes of illness and death, particularly among children and adolescents in south-central and southeast Asia. Two typhoid vaccines are widely available, Ty21a (oral) and Vi polysaccharide (parenteral). Newer typhoid conjugate vaccines are at varying stages of development and use. The World Health Organization has recently recommended a Vi tetanus toxoid (Vi-TT) conjugate vaccine, Typbar-TCV, as the preferred vaccine for all ages.

Objectives: To assess the effects of vaccines for preventing typhoid fever.

Search methods: In February 2018, we searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, LILACS, and mRCT. We also searched the reference lists of all included trials.

Selection criteria: Randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing typhoid fever vaccines with other typhoid fever vaccines or with an inactive agent (placebo or vaccine for a different disease) in adults and children. Human challenge studies were not eligible.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently applied inclusion criteria and extracted data, and assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach. We computed vaccine efficacy per year of follow-up and cumulative three-year efficacy, stratifying for vaccine type and dose. The outcome addressed was typhoid fever, defined as isolation of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi in blood. We calculated risk ratios (RRs) and efficacy (1 - RR as a percentage) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Main results: In total, 18 RCTs contributed to the quantitative analysis in this review: 13 evaluated efficacy (Ty21a: 5 trials; Vi polysaccharide: 6 trials; Vi-rEPA: 1 trial; Vi-TT: 1 trial), and 9 reported on adverse events. All trials but one took place in typhoid-endemic countries. There was no information on vaccination in adults aged over 55 years of age, pregnant women, or travellers. Only one trial included data on children under two years of age.Ty21a vaccine (oral vaccine, three doses)A three-dose schedule of Ty21a vaccine probably prevents around half of typhoid cases during the first three years after vaccination (cumulative efficacy 2.5 to 3 years: 50%, 95% CI 35% to 61%, 4 trials, 235,239 participants, moderate-certainty evidence). These data include patients aged 3 to 44 years.Compared with placebo, this vaccine probably does not cause more vomiting, diarrhoea, nausea or abdominal pain (2 trials, 2066 participants; moderate-certainty evidence), headache, or rash (1 trial, 1190 participants; moderate-certainty evidence); however, fever (2 trials, 2066 participants; moderate-certainty evidence) is probably more common following vaccination.Vi polysaccharide vaccine (injection, one dose)A single dose of Vi polysaccharide vaccine prevents around two-thirds of typhoid cases in the first year after vaccination (year 1: 69%, 95% CI 63% to 74%; 3 trials, 99,979 participants; high-certainty evidence). In year 2, trial results were more variable, with the vaccine probably preventing between 45% and 69% of typhoid cases (year 2: 59%, 95% CI 45% to 69%; 4 trials, 194,969 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). These data included participants aged 2 to 55 years of age.The three-year cumulative efficacy of the vaccine may be around 55% (95% CI 30% to 70%; 11,384 participants, 1 trial; low-certainty evidence). These data came from a single trial conducted in South Africa in the 1980s in participants aged 5 to 15 years.Compared with placebo, this vaccine probably did not increase the incidence of fever (3 trials, 132,261 participants; moderate-certainty evidence) or erythema (3 trials, 132,261 participants; low-certainty evidence); however, swelling (3 trials, 1767 participants; moderate-certainty evidence) and pain at the injection site (1 trial, 667 participants; moderate-certainty evidence) were more common in the vaccine group.Vi-rEPA vaccine (two doses)Administration of two doses of the Vi-rEPA vaccine probably prevents between 50% and 96% of typhoid cases during the first two years after vaccination (year 1: 94%, 95% CI 75% to 99%; year 2: 87%, 95% CI 56% to 96%, 1 trial, 12,008 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). These data came from a single trial with children two to five years of age conducted in Vietnam.Compared with placebo, both the first and the second dose of this vaccine increased the risk of fever (1 trial, 12,008 and 11,091 participants, low-certainty evidence) and the second dose increase the incidence of swelling at the injection site (one trial, 11,091 participants, moderate-certainty evidence).Vi-TT vaccine (two doses)We are uncertain of the efficacy of administration of two doses of Vi-TT (PedaTyph) in typhoid cases in children during the first year after vaccination (year 1: 94%, 95% CI -1% to 100%, 1 trial, 1625 participants; very low-certainty evidence). These data come from a single cluster-randomized trial in children aged six months to 12 years and conducted in India. For single dose Vi-TT (Typbar-TCV), we found no efficacy trials evaluating the vaccine with natural exposure.There were no reported serious adverse effects in RCTs of any of the vaccines studied.

Authors' conclusions: The licensed Ty21a and Vi polysaccharide vaccines are efficacious in adults and children older than two years in endemic countries. The Vi-rEPA vaccine is just as efficacious, although data is only available for children. The new Vi-TT vaccine (PedaTyph) requires further evaluation to determine if it provides protection against typhoid fever. At the time of writing, there were only efficacy data from a human challenge setting in adults on the Vi-TT vaccine (Tybar), which clearly justify the ongoing field trials to evaluate vaccine efficacy.

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Conflict of interest statement

RM has no known conflicts of interest. MP has no known conflicts of interest. MR has no known conflicts of interest. AN has no known conflicts of interest.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Ty21a vaccine (3 doses) versus control: efficacy, Outcome 1 Incidence of typhoid fever, year 1.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Ty21a vaccine (3 doses) versus control: efficacy, Outcome 2 Incidence of typhoid fever, year 2.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Ty21a vaccine (3 doses) versus control: efficacy, Outcome 3 Incidence of typhoid fever, year 3.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Ty21a vaccine (3 doses) versus control: efficacy, Outcome 4 Cumulative incidence of typhoid fever at 2.5 to 3 years.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Ty21a vaccine: liquid formulation versus enteric capsules (3 doses), Outcome 1 Cumulative incidence of typhoid fever at 2.5 to 3 years.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Ty21a vaccine: enteric versus gelatin formulation; cumulative efficacy at 2.5 to 3 years, Outcome 1 Incidence of typhoid fever.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Ty21a vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 1 Fever.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Ty21a vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 2 Vomiting.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Ty21a vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 3 Diarrhoea.
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4 Ty21a vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 4 Nausea or abdominal pain.
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4 Ty21a vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 5 Headache.
4.6
4.6. Analysis
Comparison 4 Ty21a vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 6 Rash.
4.7
4.7. Analysis
Comparison 4 Ty21a vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 7 Any mild adverse event.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Vi polysaccharide vaccine (1 dose) versus control: efficacy, Outcome 1 Incidence of typhoid fever.
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5 Vi polysaccharide vaccine (1 dose) versus control: efficacy, Outcome 2 Cumulative incidence of typhoid fever at 2.5 to 3 years.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vi polysaccharide vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 1 Fever.
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vi polysaccharide vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 2 Erythema.
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vi polysaccharide vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 3 Swelling at injection site.
6.4
6.4. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vi polysaccharide vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 4 Pain at injection site.
6.5
6.5. Analysis
Comparison 6 Vi polysaccharide vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 5 Serious adverse events.
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7 Vi‐rEPA (2 doses) versus control: efficacy, Outcome 1 Incidence of typhoid fever.
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8 Vi‐rEPA vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 1 Fever after Vi‐rEPA (dose1).
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8 Vi‐rEPA vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 2 Fever after Vi‐rEPA (dose 2).
8.3
8.3. Analysis
Comparison 8 Vi‐rEPA vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 3 Erythema after Vi‐rEPA (dose 1).
8.4
8.4. Analysis
Comparison 8 Vi‐rEPA vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 4 Erythema after Vi‐rEPA (dose 2).
8.5
8.5. Analysis
Comparison 8 Vi‐rEPA vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 5 Swelling at injection site after Vi‐rEPA (dose 1).
8.6
8.6. Analysis
Comparison 8 Vi‐rEPA vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 6 Swelling at injection site after Vi‐rEPA (dose 2).
8.7
8.7. Analysis
Comparison 8 Vi‐rEPA vaccine versus control: adverse events, Outcome 7 Serious adverse events.
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9 Vi‐TT vaccine Peda Typh (2 doses) versus control: efficacy, Outcome 1 Incidence of typhoid fever, Year 1.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

Acharya 1987 NPL {published data only}
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Levine 1987iv CHL {published data only}
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Levine 1990i CHL {published data only}
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Levine 1990ii CHL {published data only}
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Lin 2001 VNM {published data only}
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Mitra 2016 IND {published data only}
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Olanratmanee 1992 THA {published data only}
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Simanjuntak 1991i IDN {published data only}
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Simanjuntak 1991ii IDN {published data only}
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Sur 2009 IND {published and unpublished data}
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Wahdan 1980a EGY {published data only}
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Wahdan 1980b EGY {published data only}
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Wang 1997 CHN {published data only}
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Yang 2001 CHN {published data only}
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Zhou 2007 CHN {published data only}
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References to studies excluded from this review

Ali 2011 {published data only}
    1. Ali M, Sur D, Kim DR, Kanungo S, Bhattacharya SK, Manna B, et al. Impact of Vi vaccination on spatial patterns of typhoid fever in the slums of Kolkata, India. Vaccine 2011;29(48):9051‐6. - PubMed
Arya 1997 {published data only}
    1. Arya SC. Efficacy of Salmonella typhi Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine in South Africa. Vaccine 1997;15(2):244. - PubMed
Ashcroft 1967 {published data only}
    1. Ashcroft MT, Ritchie JM, Nicholson CC. Controlled field trial in British Guiana school children of heat‐killed phenolized and acetone‐killed lyophilized vaccines. American Journal of Hygiene 1964;79(2):196‐206. - PubMed
    1. Ashcroft MT, Singh B, Nicholson CC, Ritchie JM, Sobryan E, Williams F. A seven‐year field trial of two typhoid vaccines in Guyana. Lancet 1967;2(7525):1056‐9. - PubMed
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Bhutta 2014 {published data only}
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Black 1983 {published data only}
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Blomke 2017 {published data only}
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Bumann 2001 {published data only}
    1. Bumann D, Metzger WG, Mansouri E, Palme O, Wendland M, Hurwitz R, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of live recombinant Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi Ty21a expressing urease A and B from Helicobacter pylori in human volunteers. Vaccine 2001;20(5‐6):845‐52. - PubMed
Cahn 2004 {published data only}
    1. Canh DG, Lin FY, Thiem VD, Trach DD, Trong ND, Mao ND, et al. Effect of dosage on immunogenicity of a Vi conjugate vaccine injected twice into 2‐ to 5‐year‐old Vietnamese children. Infection and Immunity 2004;72(11):6586‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Chuttani 1977 {published data only}
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Cordero‐Yap 2001 {published data only}
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Cryz 1995 {published data only}
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Cumberland 1992 {published data only}
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Darton 2016 {published data only}
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Ferreccio 1989 {published data only}
    1. Ferreccio C, Levine MM, Rodriguez H, Contreras R. Comparative efficacy of two, three, or four doses of TY21a live oral typhoid vaccine in enteric‐coated capsules: a field trial in an endemic area. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1989;159(4):766‐9. - PubMed
Hejfec 1965 {published data only}
    1. Hejfec LB. Results of the study of typhoid vaccines in four controlled field trials in the USSR. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1965;32(1):1‐14. - PMC - PubMed
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Hejfec 1966 {published data only}
    1. Hejfec LB. Results of the study of typhoid vaccines in four controlled field trials in the USSR. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1965;32(1):1‐14. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hejfec LB, Salmin LV, Lejtman MZ, Kuz'minova ML, Vasil'eva AV, Levina LA, et al. A controlled field trial and laboratory study of five typhoid vaccines in the USSR. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1966;34(3):321‐39. - PMC - PubMed
Hejfec 1968 {published data only}
    1. Hejfec LB, Levina LA, Kuz'minova ML, Salmin LV, Slavina AM, Vasil'eva AV. Controlled field trials of paratyphoid B vaccine and evaluation of the effectiveness of a single administration of typhoid vaccine. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1968;38(6):907‐15. - PMC - PubMed
Hejfec 1969 {published data only}
    1. Hejfec LB, Levina LA, Kuz'minova ML, Slavina AM, Drozd AK, Tonojan IA, et al. A controlled field trial to evaluate the protective capacity of a single dose of acetone‐killed agar‐grown and heat‐killed broth‐grown typhoid vaccines. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1969;40(6):903‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Hejfec 1976 {published data only}
    1. Hejfec LB, Levina LA, Salmin LB, Antonova AA, Segal LS, Kuzminova ML, et al. Controlled field trials of killed oral typhoid and paratyphoid B vaccines and cell‐free, chemical aerosol typhoid vaccine. Developments in Biological Standardization 1976;33:93‐7. - PubMed
Hien 2010 {published data only}
    1. Hien TT, Dung NT, Truong NT, Van NTT, Chau TNB, Hoang NM, et al. A randomised trial evaluating the safety and immunogenicity of the novel single oral dose typhoid vaccine M01ZH09 in healthy Vietnamese children. PLOS ONE 2010;5(7):e11778. - PMC - PubMed
Hohmann 1996a {published data only}
    1. Hohmann EL, Oletta CA, Killeen KP, Miller SI. phoP/phoQ‐deleted Salmonella typhi (Ty800) is a safe and immunogenic single‐dose typhoid fever vaccine in volunteers. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1996;173(6):1408‐14. - PubMed
Hohmann 1996b {published data only}
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House 2011 {unpublished data only}
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References to ongoing studies

ISRCTN11643110 {unpublished data only}
    1. ISRCTN11643110. TyVAC Bangladesh: Typhoid Vaccine Trial [Assessing the impact of a Vi‐Polysaccharide Conjugate Vaccine in preventing typhoid infection among Bangladeshi children – a Phase IV trial]. isrctn.com/ISRCTN11643110 (first received 5 February 2018).
ISRCTN43385161 {unpublished data only}
    1. ISRCTN43385161. TyVAC Nepal: typhoid vaccine study [Assessing the impact of a Vi‐Polysaccharide Conjugate Vaccine in preventing typhoid infection among Nepalese children – a Phase III trial]. isrctn.com/ISRCTN43385161 (first received 20 June 2017).
NCT03299426 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT03299426. Clinical efficacy of typhoid conjugate vaccine (Vi‐TCV) among children age 9 months through 12 years in Blantyre, Malawi [A Phase III Randomized, Double‐Blind, Controlled Trial of the Clinical Efficacy of Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine (Vi‐TCV) Among Children Age 9 Months Through 12 Years in Blantyre, Malawi]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03299426 (first received 3 October 2017).

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