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Meta-Analysis
. 2018 Jun 20;6(6):CD007105.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD007105.pub4.

Local anaesthetics and regional anaesthesia versus conventional analgesia for preventing persistent postoperative pain in adults and children

Erica J Weinstein  1 , Jacob L Levene, Marc S Cohen, Doerthe A Andreae, Jerry Y Chao, Matthew Johnson, Charles B Hall, Michael H Andreae
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Local anaesthetics and regional anaesthesia versus conventional analgesia for preventing persistent postoperative pain in adults and children

Erica J Weinstein et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Regional anaesthesia may reduce the rate of persistent postoperative pain (PPP), a frequent and debilitating condition. This review was originally published in 2012 and updated in 2017.

Objectives: To compare local anaesthetics and regional anaesthesia versus conventional analgesia for the prevention of PPP beyond three months in adults and children undergoing elective surgery.

Search methods: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and Embase to December 2016 without any language restriction. We used a combination of free text search and controlled vocabulary search. We limited results to randomized controlled trials (RCTs). We updated this search in December 2017, but these results have not yet been incorporated in the review. We conducted a handsearch in reference lists of included studies, review articles and conference abstracts. We searched the PROSPERO systematic review registry for related systematic reviews.

Selection criteria: We included RCTs comparing local or regional anaesthesia versus conventional analgesia with a pain outcome beyond three months after elective, non-orthopaedic surgery.

Data collection and analysis: At least two review authors independently assessed trial quality and extracted data and adverse events. We contacted study authors for additional information. We presented outcomes as pooled odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), based on random-effects models (inverse variance method). We analysed studies separately by surgical intervention, but pooled outcomes reported at different follow-up intervals. We compared our results to Bayesian and classical (frequentist) models. We investigated heterogeneity. We assessed the quality of evidence with GRADE.

Main results: In this updated review, we identified 40 new RCTs and seven ongoing studies. In total, we included 63 RCTs in the review, but we were only able to synthesize data on regional anaesthesia for the prevention of PPP beyond three months after surgery from 39 studies, enrolling a total of 3027 participants in our inclusive analysis.Evidence synthesis of seven RCTs favoured epidural anaesthesia for thoracotomy, suggesting the odds of having PPP three to 18 months following an epidural for thoracotomy were 0.52 compared to not having an epidural (OR 0.52 (95% CI 0.32 to 0.84, 499 participants, moderate-quality evidence). Simlarly, evidence synthesis of 18 RCTs favoured regional anaesthesia for the prevention of persistent pain three to 12 months after breast cancer surgery with an OR of 0.43 (95% CI 0.28 to 0.68, 1297 participants, low-quality evidence). Pooling data at three to 8 months after surgery from four RCTs favoured regional anaesthesia after caesarean section with an OR of 0.46, (95% CI 0.28 to 0.78; 551 participants, moderate-quality evidence). Evidence synthesis of three RCTs investigating continuous infusion with local anaesthetic for the prevention of PPP three to 55 months after iliac crest bone graft harvesting (ICBG) was inconclusive (OR 0.20, 95% CI 0.04 to 1.09; 123 participants, low-quality evidence). However, evidence synthesis of two RCTs also favoured the infusion of intravenous local anaesthetics for the prevention of PPP three to six months after breast cancer surgery with an OR of 0.24 (95% CI 0.08 to 0.69, 97 participants, moderate-quality evidence).We did not synthesize evidence for the surgical subgroups of limb amputation, hernia repair, cardiac surgery and laparotomy. We could not pool evidence for adverse effects because the included studies did not examine them systematically, and reported them sparsely. Clinical heterogeneity, attrition and sparse outcome data hampered evidence synthesis. High risk of bias from missing data and lack of blinding across a number of included studies reduced our confidence in the findings. Thus results must be interpreted with caution.

Authors' conclusions: We conclude that there is moderate-quality evidence that regional anaesthesia may reduce the risk of developing PPP after three to 18 months after thoracotomy and three to 12 months after caesarean section. There is low-quality evidence that regional anaesthesia may reduce the risk of developing PPP three to 12 months after breast cancer surgery. There is moderate evidence that intravenous infusion of local anaesthetics may reduce the risk of developing PPP three to six months after breast cancer surgery.Our conclusions are considerably weakened by the small size and number of studies, by performance bias, null bias, attrition and missing data. Larger, high-quality studies, including children, are needed. We caution that except for breast surgery, our evidence synthesis is based on only a few small studies. On a cautionary note, we cannot extend our conclusions to other surgical interventions or regional anaesthesia techniques, for example we cannot conclude that paravertebral block reduces the risk of PPP after thoracotomy. There are seven ongoing studies and 12 studies awaiting classification that may change the conclusions of the current review once they are published and incorporated.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Erica J Weinstein: none known Jacob L Levene: none known Marc S Cohen: none known Doerthe A Andreae: none known Jerry Chao: none known Matthew Johnson: none known Charles B Hall: none known Michael Andreae: none known

Figures

1
1
The study flow diagram documents the search and selection process. We included 63 studies. We were able to pool data from 39 of the 63 included studies in our inclusive analysis; data from 24 studies were not available or otherwise could not be pooled (Appendix 11).
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies
3
3
Methodological quality summary: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item for each included study
4
4
This graph plots attrition versus effect size (log odds ratio) for studies investigating regional anaesthesia for the prevention of persistent pain after thoracotomy (blue), breast surgery (pink) and caesarean section (green). Symbol size decreases with attrition. Repeated follow‐ups within one study are linked with a black line. We are unable to discern any association between attrition, follow‐up time and effect measure; this lends support to our decision to pool studies reporting outcomes at different follow‐up intervals and with different attrition.
5
5
The funnel plot for breast surgery including all outcomes at any follow‐up interval for all breast surgery studies is inconclusive for publication bias.
6
6
Forest plot of comparison 1. Local or regional anaesthesia for the prevention of persistent postoperative pain (inclusive analysis), outcome 1.3, PPP three to 12 months after breast cancer surgery
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

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Kairaluoma 2006 {published data only}
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Karanikolas 2006 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
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Lavand'homme 2005 {published data only}
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Strazisar 2012 {published data only}
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Terkawi 2015b {published data only}
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    1. Weber T, Matzl J, Rokitansky A, Klimscha W, Neumann K, Deusch E. Superior postoperative pain relief with thoracic epidural analgesia versus intravenous patient‐controlled analgesia after minimally invasive pectus excavatum repair. The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 2007;134(4):865‐70. [PUBMED: 17903498] - PubMed
Wodlin 2011 {published data only}
    1. Wodlin NB, Nilsson L, Arestedt K, Kjolhede P. Mode of anesthesia and postoperative symptoms following abdominal hysterectomy in a fast‐track setting. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2011;90(4):369‐79. [PUBMED: 21332679] - PubMed
    1. Wodlin NB, Nilsson L, Kjolhede P. Health‐related quality of life and postoperative recovery in fast‐track hysterectomy. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2011;90(4):362‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Xu 2017 {published data only}
    1. Xu B, Ren L, Tu W, Wu Z, Ai F, Zhou D, et al. Continuous wound infusion of ropivacaine for the control of pain after thoracolumbar spinal surgery: a randomized clinical trial. European Spine Journal 2017;26(3):825‐31. [PUBMED: 25935145] - PubMed
Zhou 2016 {published data only}
    1. Zhou H, Ou M, Yang Y, Ruan Q, Pan Y, Li Y. Effect of skin infiltration with ropivacaine on postoperative pain in patients undergoing craniotomy. SpringerPlus 2016;5(1):1180. [PUBMED: 27512639] - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Abdel‐Salam 1975 {published data only}
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Aveline 2011 {published data only}
    1. Aveline C, Hetet H, Roux A, Vautier P, Cognet F, Vinet E, et al. Comparison between ultrasound‐guided transversus abdominis plane and conventional ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve blocks for day‐case open inguinal hernia repair. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2011;106(3):380‐6. [PUBMED: 21177284] - PubMed
Bach 1988 {published data only}
    1. Bach S, Noreng MF, Tjéllden NU. Phantom limb pain in amputees during the first 12 months following limb amputation, after preoperative lumbar epidural blockade. Pain 1988;33:297‐301. [PUBMED: 3419837] - PubMed
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Bamigboye 2013 {published data only}
    1. Bamigboye AA, Hofmeyr J, Labeodan M. Caesarean section wound infiltration with ropivacaine versus placebo: survey of chronic pelvic pain after 4 years' follow‐up. South African Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2013;19(3):75‐6. [CENTRAL: CN‐00916001; EMBASE: 2013571611]
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Baral 2010 {published data only}
    1. Baral BK, Bhattarai BK, Rahman TR, Singh SN, Regmi R. Perioperative intravenous lidocaine infusion on postoperative pain relief in patients undergoing upper abdominal surgery. Nepal Medical College journal : NMCJ 2010;12(4):215‐20. [PUBMED: 21744761] - PubMed
Batoz 2009 {published data only}
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Blumenthal 2011 {published data only}
    1. Blumenthal S, Borgeat A, Neudorfer C, Bertolini R, Espinosa N, Aguirre J. Additional femoral catheter in combination with popliteal catheter for analgesia after major ankle surgery. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2011;106(3):387‐93. [PUBMED: 21169609] - PubMed
Borgeat 2001 {published data only}
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Borghi 2010 {published data only}
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Brull 1992 {published data only}
    1. Brull SJ, Lieponis JV, Murphy MJ, Garcia R, Silverman DG. Acute and long‐term benefits of iliac crest donor site perfusion with local anesthetics. Anesthesia and analgesia 1992;74(1):145‐7. [PUBMED: 1734778] - PubMed
Cerfolio 2003 {published data only}
    1. Cerfolio RJ, Bryant AS, Bass CS, Bartolucci AA. A prospective, double‐blinded, randomized trial evaluating the use of preemptive analgesia of the skin before thoracotomy. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery 2003;76(4):1055‐8. [PUBMED: 14529984] - PubMed
Chelly 2011 {published data only}
    1. Chelly JE, Ploskanych T, Dai F, Nelson JB. Multimodal analgesic approach incorporating paravertebral blocks for open radical retropubic prostatectomy: a randomized double‐blind placebo‐controlled study. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal Canadien d'Anésthesie 2011;58(4):371‐8. [PUBMED: 21174182] - PubMed
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Corsini 2013 {published data only}
    1. Corsini T, Cuvillon P, Forgeot A, Chapelle C, Seffert P, Chauleur C. Single‐dose intraincisional levobupivacaine infiltration in caesarean postoperative analgesia: a placebo‐controlled double‐blind randomized trial [Infiltration peropératoire de lévobupivacaine après césariennes: étude randomisée en double insu contre placebo]. Annales francaises d'anesthésie et de réanimation 2013;32(1):25‐30. [PUBMED: 23260628] - PubMed
da Costa 2011 {published data only}
    1. Costa VV, Oliveira SB, Fernandes Mdo C, Saraiva RA. Incidence of regional pain syndrome after carpal tunnel release. Is there a correlation with the anesthetic technique?. Revista Brasileira de Anestesiologia 2011;61(4):425‐33. [PUBMED: 21724005] - PubMed
De Kock 2001 {published data only}
    1. Kock M, Lavand'homme P, Waterloos H. 'Balanced analgesia' in the perioperative period: is there a place for ketamine?. Pain 2001;92(3):373‐80. [PUBMED: 11376910] - PubMed
Duale 2009 {published data only}
    1. Duale C, Sibaud F, Guastella V, Vallet L, Gimbert YA, Taheri H, et al. Perioperative ketamine does not prevent chronic pain after thoracotomy. European Journal of Pain (London, England) 2009;13(5):497‐505. [PUBMED: 18783971] - PubMed
Eisenach 2010 {published data only}
    1. Eisenach JC, Curry R, Rauck R, Pan P, Yaksh TL. Role of spinal cyclooxygenase in human postoperative and chronic pain. Anesthesiology 2010;112(5):1225‐33. [PUBMED: 20395820] - PMC - PubMed
Elman 1989 {published data only}
    1. Elman A, Debaene B, Magny‐Metrot C, Orhant E, Jolis P. Intrapleural analgesia with bupivacaine after thoracotomy is ineffective. Controlled study and pharmacokinetics [L'analgésie intrapleurale à la bupivacaine après thoracotomie est inefficace. Etude controlée et pharmacocinétique]. Annales Françaises d'Anesthésie et de Réanimation 1989;8 Suppl:R181. [PUBMED: 2604141] - PubMed
El‐Morsy 2012 {published data only}
    1. El‐Morsy GZ, El‐Deeb A, El‐Desouky T, Elsharkawy AA, Elgamal MA. Can thoracic paravertebral block replace thoracic epidural block in pediatric cardiac surgery? A randomized blinded study. Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia 2012;15(4):259‐63. [PUBMED: 23041682] - PubMed
Farag 2013 {published data only}
    1. Farag E, Ghobrial M, Sessler DI, Dalton JE, Liu J, Lee JH, et al. Effect of perioperative intravenous lidocaine administration on pain, opioid consumption, and quality of life after complex spine surgery. Anesthesiology 2013;119(4):932‐40. [PUBMED: 23681143] - PubMed
Gottschalk 1998 {published data only}
    1. Gottschalk A, Smith DS, Jobes DR, Kennedy SK, Lally SE, Noble VE, et al. Preemptive epidural analgesia and recovery from radical prostatectomy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;279(14):1076‐82. [PUBMED: 9546566] - PubMed
Haythornthwaite 1998 {published data only}
    1. Haythornthwaite JA, Raja SN, Fisher B, Frank SM, Brendler CB, Shir Y. Pain and quality of life following radical retropubic prostatectomy. The Journal of Urology 1998;160(5):1761‐4. [PUBMED: 9783947] - PubMed
    1. Shir Y, Frank SM, Brendler CB, Raja SN. Postoperative morbidity is similar in patients anesthetized with epidural and general anesthesia for radical prostatectomy. Urology 1994;44(2):232‐6. [PUBMED: 8048199] - PubMed
    1. Shir Y, Raja SN, Frank SM. The effect of epidural versus general anesthesia on postoperative pain and analgesic requirements in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy. Anesthesiology 1994;80(1):49‐56. [PUBMED: 8291729] - PubMed
Hirakawa 1996 {published data only}
    1. Hirakawa N, Fukui M, Takasaki M, Harano K, Totoki T. The effect of preemptive analgesia on the persistent pain following thoracotomy. Masui To Sosei. Hiroshima Journal of Anesthesia 1996;32(3):263‐6.
Hivelin 2011 {published data only}
    1. Hivelin M, Wyniecki A, Plaud B, Marty J, Lantieri L. Ultrasound‐guided bilateral transversus abdominis plane block for postoperative analgesia after breast reconstruction by DIEP flap. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 2011;128(1):44‐55. [PUBMED: 21701318] - PubMed
Howell 2001 {published data only}
    1. Howell CJ, Dean T, Lucking L, Dziedzic K, Jones PW, Johanson RB. Randomised study of long term outcome after epidural versus non‐epidural analgesia during labour. BMJ 2002;325(7360):357. [MEDLINE: ] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Howell CJ, Kidd C, Roberts W, Upton P, Lucking L, Jones PW, et al. A randomised controlled trial of epidural compared with non‐epidural analgesia in labour. BJOG 2001;108(1):27‐33. [PUBMED: 11213000] - PubMed
Ilfeld 2004 {published data only}
    1. Ilfeld BM, Smith DW, Enneking FK. Continuous regional analgesia following ambulatory pediatric orthopedic surgery. The American Journal of Orthopedics 2004;33(8):405‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Ilfeld 2015 {published data only}
    1. Ilfeld BM, Madison SJ, Suresh PJ, Sandhu NS, Kormylo NJ, Malhotra N, et al. Persistent postmastectomy pain and pain‐related physical and emotional functioning with and without a continuous paravertebral nerve block: a prospective 1‐year follow‐up assessment of a randomized, triple‐masked, placebo‐controlled study. Annals of Surgical Oncology 2015;22(6):2017‐25. [PUBMED: 25413267] - PubMed
Jahangiri 1994 {published data only}
    1. Jahangiri M, Jayatunga AP, Bradley JW, Dark CH. Prevention of phantom pain after major lower limb amputation by epidural infusion of diamorphine, clonidine and bupivacaine. Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 1994;76(5):324‐6. [PUBMED: 7979074] - PMC - PubMed
Jirarattanaphochai 2007 {published data only}
    1. Jirarattanaphochai K, Jung S, Thienthong S, Krisanaprakornkit W, Sumananont C. Peridural methylprednisolone and wound infiltration with bupivacaine for postoperative pain control after posterior lumbar spine surgery: a randomized double‐blinded placebo‐controlled trial. Spine 2007;32(6):609‐16; discussion 617. [PUBMED: 17413463] - PubMed
Joseph 2012 {published data only}
    1. Joseph C, Gaillat F, Duponq R, Lieven R, Baumstarck K, Thomas P, et al. Is there any benefit to adding intravenous ketamine to patient‐controlled epidural analgesia after thoracic surgery? A randomized double‐blind study. European Journal of Cardio‐thoracic Surgery 2012;42(4):e58‐65. [PUBMED: 22790008] - PubMed
Kairaluoma 2010 {published data only}
    1. Kairaluoma P, Bachmann M, Alatalo S, Rosenberg P, Pere P. Paravertebral block vs. local anaesthetic wound infiltration for analgesia after open inguinal hernia repair performed under spinal anaesthesia. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 2010;35(5):E117. [DOI: ; EMBASE: 70287448]
Kindberg 2009 {published data only}
    1. Kindberg S, Klunder L, Strom J, Henriksen TB. Ear acupuncture or local anaesthetics as pain relief during postpartum surgical repair: a randomised controlled trial. BJOG 2009;116(4):569‐76. [PUBMED: 19120322] - PubMed
Kumar 1989 {published data only}
    1. Kumar CM. Paravertebral block for post‐cholecystectomy pain relief. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1989; Vol. 63, issue 1:129. [PUBMED: 2765341] - PubMed
Kumar 2009 {published data only}
    1. Kumar S, Joshi M, Chaudhary S. 'Dissectalgia' following TEP, a new entity: its recognition and treatment. Results of a prospective randomized controlled trial. Hernia 2009;13(6):591‐6. [PUBMED: 19644647] - PubMed
Lambert 2001 {published data only}
    1. Lambert AW, Dashfield AK, Cosgrove C, Wilkins DC, Walker AJ, Ashley S. Randomized prospective study comparing preoperative epidural and intraoperative perineural analgesia for the prevention of postoperative stump and phantom limb pain following major amputation. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 2001;26(4):316‐21. [PUBMED: 11464349] - PubMed
Lebreux 2007 {published data only}
    1. Lavand'homme P, Roelants F, Fuzier‐Mercier V, Waterloos H. Postoperative analgesic and antihyperalgesic effects of spinal clonidine for cesarean section. Anesthesiology 2006;105:A997.
    1. Lebreux L, Roelants F, Waterloos H, Lavand'homme P. Postoperative analgesic and antihyperalgesic effect of spinal clonidine used during elective cesarean section. Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica 2007;58(1):71. [EMBASE: 2007190608]
Lee 2012 {published data only}
    1. Lee JH, Yang WD, Han SY, Noh JI, Cho SH, Kim SH, et al. Effect of epidural magnesium on the incidence of chronic postoperative pain after video‐assisted thoracic surgery. Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia 2012;26(6):1055‐9. [PUBMED: 22883445] - PubMed
Loughnan 2002 {published data only}
    1. Loughnan BA, Carli F, Romney M, Dore CJ, Gordon H. Epidural analgesia and backache: a randomized controlled comparison with intramuscular meperidine for analgesia during labour. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2002;89(3):466‐72. [PUBMED: 12402727] - PubMed
Mendola 2012 {published data only}
    1. Mendola C, Cammarota G, Netto R, Cecci G, Pisterna A, Ferrante D, et al. S+ ‐ketamine for control of perioperative pain and prevention of post thoracotomy pain syndrome: a randomized, double‐blind study. Minerva Anestesiologica 2012;78(7):757‐66. [PUBMED: 22441361] - PubMed
Milligan 2002 {published data only}
    1. Milligan MP, Etokowo G, Kanumuru S, Mannifold N. Microwave endometrial ablation: patients' experiences in the first 3 months following treatment. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2002;22(2):201‐4. [PUBMED: 12521709] - PubMed
Muthukumar 2012 {published data only}
    1. Muthukumar M, Arya VK, Mathew PJ, Sharma RK. Comparison of haemodynamic responses following different concentrations of adrenaline with and without lignocaine for surgical field infiltration during cleft lip and cleft palate surgery in children. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 2012;40(1):114‐9. [PUBMED: 22313070] - PubMed
Nabhan 2011 {published data only}
    1. Nabhan A, Steudel WI, Dedeman L, Al‐Khayat J, Ishak B. Subcutaneous local anesthesia versus intravenous regional anesthesia for endoscopic carpal tunnel release: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Neurosurgery 2011;114(1):240‐4. [PUBMED: 20415525] - PubMed
Nikolajsen 1997 {published data only}
    1. Nikolajsen L, Ilkjaer S, Christensen JH, Kroner K, Jensen TS. Randomised trial of epidural bupivacaine and morphine in prevention of stump and phantom pain in lower‐limb amputation. Lancet 1997;350(9088):1353‐7. [PUBMED: 9365449] - PubMed
    1. Nikolajsen L, Ilkjaer S, Jensen TS. Effect of preoperative extradural bupivacaine and morphine on stump sensation in lower limb amputees. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1998;81(3):348‐54. [PUBMED: 9861117] - PubMed
Obata 1999 {published data only}
    1. Obata H, Saito S, Fujita N, Fuse Y, Ishizaki K, Goto F. Epidural block with mepivacaine before surgery reduces long term postthoracotomy pain. Canadian Journal of Anasthesia/Journal Canadien d'Anesthésie 1999;46:1127‐32. [PUBMED: 10608205] - PubMed
Ochroch 2006 {published data only}
    1. Gottschalk A, Ochroch EA. Clinical and demographic characteristics of patients with chronic pain after major thoracotomy. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2008;24(8):708‐16. [PUBMED: 18806536] - PubMed
    1. Ochroch EA, Gottschalk A, Augostides J, Carson KA, Kent L, Malayaman N, et al. Long term pain and activity during recovery from major thoracotomy using thoracic epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2002;97:1234‐44. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
    1. Ochroch EA, Gottschalk A, Troxel AB, Farrar JT. Women suffer more short and long‐term pain than men after major thoracotomy. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2006;22(5):491‐8. [MEDLINE: ] - PubMed
Ouaki 2009 {published data only}
    1. Ouaki J, Dadure C, Bringuier S, Raux O, Rochette A, Captier G, et al. Continuous infusion of ropivacaine: an optimal postoperative analgesia regimen for iliac crest bone graft in children. Paediatric Anaesthesia 2009;19(9):887‐91. [PUBMED: 19691695] - PubMed
Panos 1990 {published data only}
    1. Panos L, Sandler AN, Stringer DG, Badner N, Lawson S, Koren G. Continuous infusions of lumbar epidural fentanyl and intravenous fentanyl for post‐thoracotomy pain relief. I: analgesic and pharmacokinetic effects. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1990;37(4 Pt 2):S66. [PUBMED: 2193761] - PubMed
Perniola 2009 {published data only}
    1. Perniola A, Gupta A, Crafoord K, Darvish B, Magnuson A, Axelsson K. Intraabdominal local anaesthetics for postoperative pain relief following abdominal hysterectomy: a randomized, double‐blind, dose‐finding study. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2009;26(5):421‐9. [PUBMED: 19521298] - PubMed
Pompeo 2007 {published data only}
    1. Pompeo E, Tacconi F, Mineo D, Mineo TC. The role of awake video‐assisted thoracoscopic surgery in spontaneous pneumothorax. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 2007;133(3):786‐90. [PUBMED: 17320585] - PubMed
Rosen 2009 {published data only}
    1. Rosen MJ, Duperier T, Marks J, Onders R, Hardacre J, Ponsky J, et al. Prospective randomized double‐blind placebo‐controlled trial of postoperative elastomeric pain pump devices used after laparoscopic ventral hernia repair. Surgical Endoscopy 2009;23(12):2637‐43. [PUBMED: 19357918] - PubMed
Royse 2007 {published data only}
    1. Royse C, Remedios C, Royse A. High thoracic epidural analgesia reduces the risk of long‐term depression in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. Annals of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 2007;13(1):32‐5. [PUBMED: 17392668] - PubMed
Ryu 2011 {published data only}
    1. Ryu HG, Lee CJ, Kim YT, Bahk JH. Preemptive low‐dose epidural ketamine for preventing chronic postthoracotomy pain: a prospective, double‐blinded, randomized, clinical trial. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2011;27(4):304‐8. [PUBMED: 21178605] - PubMed
Saber 2009 {published data only}
    1. Saber AA, Elgamal MH, Rao AJ, Itawi EA, Martinez RL. Early experience with lidocaine patch for postoperative pain control after laparoscopic ventral hernia repair. International Journal of Surgery (London, England) 2009;7(1):36‐8. [PUBMED: 18951860] - PubMed
Salengros 2010 {published data only}
    1. Salengros JC, Huybrechts I, Ducart A, Faraoni D, Marsala C, Barvais L, et al. Different anesthetic techniques associated with different incidences of chronic post‐thoracotomy pain: low‐dose remifentanil plus presurgical epidural analgesia is preferable to high‐dose remifentanil with postsurgical epidural analgesia. Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia 2010;24(4):608‐16. [PUBMED: 20005744] - PubMed
Schaan 2004 {published data only}
    1. Schaan M, Schmitt N, Boszczyk B, Jaksche H. Reduction in late postoperative pain after iliac crest bonegraft harvesting for cervical fusion: a controlled double‐blinded study of 100 patients. Acta Neurochirurgica 2004;146(9):961‐5. [PUBMED: 15340805] - PubMed
Schley 2007 {published data only}
    1. Schley M, Topfner S, Wiech K, Schaller HE, Konrad CJ, Schmelz M, et al. Continuous brachial plexus blockade in combination with the NMDA receptor antagonist memantine prevents phantom pain in acute traumatic upper limb amputees. European Journal of Pain 2007;11(3):299‐308. [PUBMED: 16716615] - PubMed
Sen 2009 {published data only}
    1. Sen H, Sizlan A, Yanarates O, Senol MG, Inangil G, Sucullu I, et al. The effects of gabapentin on acute and chronic pain after inguinal herniorrhaphy. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2009;26(9):772‐6. [PUBMED: 19424073] - PubMed
Shikano 1994 {published data only}
    1. Shikano S Yamashita H, Kawahara M, Shimizu N, Nomura S, Nobusawa S, et al. Effect of wound infiltration with bupivacaine for postoperative pain after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Surgical Laparoscopy and Endoscopy 1994;4(6):500.
Sim 2012 {published data only}
    1. Sim WS, Lee SH, Roe HJ. Does preemptive thoracic epidural analgesia enhance post‐thoracotomy pain control and pulmonary function?. Pain Practice 2012;12:137. [EMBASE: 70654960]
Suvikapakornkul 2009 {published data only}
    1. Suvikapakornkul R, Valaivarangkul P, Noiwan P, Phansukphon T. A randomized controlled trial of preperitoneal bupivacaine instillation for reducing pain following laparoscopic inguinal herniorrhaphy. Surgical Innovation 2009;16(2):117‐23. [PUBMED: 19468036] - PubMed
Suzuki 2006 {published data only}
    1. Suzuki M, Haraguti S, Sugimoto K, Kikutani T, Shimada Y, Sakamoto A. Low‐dose intravenous ketamine potentiates epidural analgesia after thoracotomy. Anesthesiology 2006;105(1):111‐9. [PUBMED: 16810002] - PubMed
Verma 2006 {published data only}
    1. Verma GR, Lyngdoh TS, Kaman L, Bala I. Placement of 0.5% bupivacaine‐soaked Surgicel in the gallbladder bed is effective for pain after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Surgical Endoscopy 2006;20(10):1560‐4. [PUBMED: 16897291] - PubMed
Vigneau 2011 {published data only}
    1. Vigneau A, Salengro A, Berger J, Rouzier R, Barranger E, Marret E, et al. A double blind randomized trial of wound infiltration with ropivacaine after breast cancer surgery with axillary nodes dissection. BMC Anesthesiology 2011;11:23. [PUBMED: 22114900] - PMC - PubMed
Wang 1992 {published data only}
    1. Wang DF, Liu XM, Xue CX. A comparative study of intra‐pleural administration of bupivacaine in different volume for pain relief after thoracotomy. Chinese Journal of Anesthesiology 1992; Vol. 12, issue 6:370‐2. [0254‐1416]
Weihrauch 2005 {published data only}
    1. Weihrauch JO, Jehmlich M, Leischik M, Hopf HB. Are peripheral nerve blocks of the leg (femoralis in combination with anterior sciatic blockade) as sole anaesthetic technique an alternative to epidural anaesthesia? [Ist die periphere nervenblockade des beines (femoralis‐ in kombination mit anteriorer ischiadikusblockade) als alleinige anasthesietechnik eine alternative zur periduralanasthesie fur arthroskopische eingriffe am kniegelenk?]. Anasthesiologie, Intensivmedizin, Notfallmedizin, Schmerztherapie: AINS 2005;40(1):18‐24. [PUBMED: 15645383] - PubMed
Wilson 2008 {published data only}
    1. Wilson JA, Nimmo AF, Fleetwood‐Walker SM, Colvin LA. A randomised double blind trial of the effect of pre‐emptive epidural ketamine on persistent pain after lower limb amputation. Pain 2008;135(1‐2):108‐18. [PUBMED: 17583431] - PubMed
Yang 2012 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Yang HC, Lee J, Song I, Lee J, Choi W, Cho S, et al. Pain control of thoracoscopic major pulmonary resection: is pre‐emptive local bupivacaine injection able to replace intravenous patient‐controlled analgesia?. Interactive Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery 2012;15(Suppl. 2):S104‐S105. [EMBASE: 70930928]

References to studies awaiting assessment

Capdevila 2017 {published data only}
    1. Capdevila X, Moulard S, Plasse C, Peshaud JL, Molinari N, Dadure C, et al. Effectiveness of epidural analgesia, continuous surgical site analgesia, and patient‐controlled analgesic morphine for postoperative pain management and hyperalgesia, rehabilitation, and health‐related quality of life after open nephrectomy: a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2017;124(1):336‐45. [PUBMED: 27918333] - PubMed
Choi 2017 {published data only}
    1. Choi KW, Nam KH, Lee JR, Chung WY, Kang SW, Joe YE, et al. The effects of intravenous lidocaine infusions on the quality of recovery and chronic pain after robotic thyroidectomy: a randomized, double‐blinded, controlled study. World Journal of Surgery 2017;41(5):1305‐12. [PUBMED: 27896411] - PubMed
Elkaradawy 2012 {published data only}
    1. Elkaradawy S, Nasr M, Elkerm Y, Deeb M, Yassine O. The effect of multimodal balanced anaesthesia and long term gabapentin on neuropathic pain, nitric oxide and interleukin‐1β following breast surgery. Egyptian Journal of Anaesthesia 2012;28(1):67‐78.
Fiorelli 2016 {published data only}
    1. Fiorelli A, Natale D, Rimessi A, Sansone P, Pace C, Passavanti B, et al. Preventive application of lidocaine patch in adjunction to intravenous morphine analgesia for management of post‐thoracotomy pain: results of a randomized, double blind, placebo controlled study. Interactive Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery 2016;23(suppl 1):i2.
Iohom 2006 {published data only}
    1. Iohom G, Abdalla H, O'Brien J, Szarvas S, Larney V, Buckley E, et al. The associations between severity of early postoperative pain, chronic postsurgical pain and plasma concentration of stable nitric oxide products after breast surgery. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2006;103(4):995‐1000. [PUBMED: 17000819] - PubMed
Jendoubi 2017 {published data only}
    1. Jendoubi A, Naceur IB, Bouzouita A, Trifa M, Ghedira S, Chebil M, et al. A comparison between intravenous lidocaine and ketamine on acute and chronic pain after open nephrectomy: a prospective, double‐blind, randomized, placebo‐controlled study. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia 2017;11(2):177‐84. [PUBMED: 28442956] - PMC - PubMed
Kendall 2018 {published data only}
    1. Kendall MC, McCarthy RJ, Panaro S, Goodwin E, Bialek JM, Nader A, et al. The effect of intraoperative systemic lidocaine on postoperative persistent pain using Initiative on Methods, Measurement, and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials criteria assessment following breast cancer surgery: a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Pain Practice 2018;18(3):350‐9. [DOI: 10.1111/papr.12611; PUBMED: 28691269] - DOI - PubMed
Kim 2017 {published data only}
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References to other published versions of this review

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