Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2018 Jul 5;7(7):CD012960.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012960.pub2.

Effects of total fat intake on bodyweight in children

Celeste E Naude  1 , Marianne E Visser, Kim A Nguyen, Solange Durao, Anel Schoonees
Affiliations

Effects of total fat intake on bodyweight in children

Celeste E Naude et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: As part of efforts to prevent childhood overweight and obesity, we need to understand the relationship between total fat intake and body fatness in generally healthy children.

Objectives: To assess the effects and associations of total fat intake on measures of weight and body fatness in children and young people not aiming to lose weight.

Search methods: For this update we revised the previous search strategy and ran it over all years in the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE (Ovid), MEDLINE (PubMed), and Embase (Ovid) (current to 23 May 2017). No language and publication status limits were applied. We searched the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and ClinicalTrials.gov for ongoing and unpublished studies (5 June 2017).

Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in children aged 24 months to 18 years, with or without risk factors for cardiovascular disease, randomised to a lower fat (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual or moderate-fat diet (greater than 30%TE), without the intention to reduce weight, and assessed a measure of weight or body fatness after at least six months. We included prospective cohort studies if they related baseline total fat intake to weight or body fatness at least 12 months later.

Data collection and analysis: We extracted data on participants, interventions or exposures, controls and outcomes, and trial or cohort quality characteristics, as well as data on potential effect modifiers, and assessed risk of bias for all included studies. We extracted body weight and blood lipid levels outcomes at six months, six to 12 months, one to two years, two to five years and more than five years for RCTs; and for cohort studies, at baseline to one year, one to two years, two to five years, five to 10 years and more than 10 years. We planned to perform random-effects meta-analyses with relevant subgrouping, and sensitivity and funnel plot analyses where data allowed.

Main results: We included 24 studies comprising three parallel-group RCTs (n = 1054 randomised) and 21 prospective analytical cohort studies (about 25,059 children completed). Twenty-three studies were conducted in high-income countries. No meta-analyses were possible, since only one RCT reported the same outcome at each time point range for all outcomes, and cohort studies were too heterogeneous to combine.Effects of dietary counselling to reduce total fat intake from RCTsTwo studies recruited children aged between 4 and 11 years and a third recruited children aged 12 to 13 years. Interventions were combinations of individual and group counselling, and education sessions in clinics, schools and homes, delivered by dieticians, nutritionists, behaviourists or trained, supervised teachers. Concerns about imprecision and poor reporting limited our confidence in our findings. In addition, the inclusion of hypercholesteraemic children in two trials raised concerns about applicability.One study of dietary counselling to lower total fat intake found that the intervention may make little or no difference to weight compared with usual diet at 12 months (mean difference (MD) -0.50 kg, 95% confidence interval (CI) -1.78 to 0.78; n = 620; low-quality evidence) and at three years (MD -0.60 kg, 95% CI -2.39 to 1.19; n = 612; low-quality evidence). Education delivered as a classroom curriculum probably decreased BMI in children at 17 months (MD -1.5 kg/m2, 95% CI -2.45 to -0.55; 1 RCT; n = 191; moderate-quality evidence). The effects were smaller at longer term follow-up (five years: MD 0 kg/m2, 95% CI -0.63 to 0.63; n = 541; seven years; MD -0.10 kg/m2, 95% CI -0.75 to 0.55; n = 576; low-quality evidence).Dietary counselling probably slightly reduced total cholesterol at 12 months compared to controls (MD -0.15 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.24 to -0.06; 1 RCT; n = 618; moderate-quality evidence), but may make little or no difference over longer time periods. Dietary counselling probably slightly decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol at 12 months (MD -0.12 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.20 to -0.04; 1 RCT; n = 618, moderate-quality evidence) and at five years (MD -0.09, 95% CI -0.17 to -0.01; 1 RCT; n = 623; moderate-quality evidence), compared to controls. Dietary counselling probably made little or no difference to HDL-C at 12 months (MD -0.03 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.08 to 0.02; 1 RCT; n = 618; moderate-quality evidence), and at five years (MD -0.01 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.06 to 0.04; 1 RCT; n = 522; moderate-quality evidence). Likewise, counselling probably made little or no difference to triglycerides in children at 12 months (MD -0.01 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.08 to 0.06; 1 RCT; n = 618; moderate-quality evidence). Lower versus usual or modified fat intake may make little or no difference to height at seven years (MD -0.60 cm, 95% CI -2.06 to 0.86; 1 RCT; n = 577; low-quality evidence).Associations between total fat intake, weight and body fatness from cohort studiesOver half the cohort analyses that reported on primary outcomes suggested that as total fat intake increases, body fatness measures may move in the same direction. However, heterogeneous methods and reporting across cohort studies, and predominantly very low-quality evidence, made it difficult to draw firm conclusions and true relationships may be substantially different.

Authors' conclusions: We were unable to reach firm conclusions. Limited evidence from three trials that randomised children to dietary counselling or education to lower total fat intake (30% or less TE) versus usual or modified fat intake, but with no intention to reduce weight, showed small reductions in body mass index, total- and LDL-cholesterol at some time points with lower fat intake compared to controls. There were no consistent effects on weight, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol or height. Associations in cohort studies that related total fat intake to later measures of body fatness in children were inconsistent and the quality of this evidence was mostly very low. Most studies were conducted in high-income countries, and may not be applicable in low- and middle-income settings. High-quality, longer-term studies are needed, that include low- and middle-income settings to look at both possible benefits and harms.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The World Health Organization (WHO) provided funding to Stellenbosch University towards the cost of carrying out the update of this systematic review. CN, MV, SD and AS are partly supported by the Effective Health Care Research Consortium. This Consortium is funded by UK aid from the UK Government for the benefit of developing countries (Grant: 5242). The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect UK government policy.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram. RCT: randomised controlled trial.
2
2
The bubble‐plot presents the spread of the different ways in which total fat intake estimates were expressed and applied to examine associations with body fatness in the 81 analyses, reporting primary outcomes in the five time point ranges. Combining the many various total fat intake exposure estimates reporting on the same outcome in the same time point range was deemed inappropriate. BMI: body mass index; WC: waist circumference; yr: year.
3
3
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
4
4
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study. RCT: randomised controlled trial.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 1 Weight outcomes (standardised and unstandardised end values).
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 2 Body mass index (BMI) (kg/m2) (end values).
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 3 BMI (kg/m2) (end values): sensitivity analysis (longest follow‐up data only).
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 4 BMI (kg/m2) (end values): sensitivity analysis (shortest follow‐up data only).
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 5 Total cholesterol (mmol/L) (end values).
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 6 Low‐density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (mmol/L).
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 7 High‐density lipoprotein (HDL)‐cholesterol (mmol) (end values).
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 8 Triglycerides (mmol/L) (end values).
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 9 Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) (end values).
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 10 Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) (end values).
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 11 Height outcomes (standardised and unstandardised end values).
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 12 Energy intake (kJ) (end values).
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 13 Fat intake (%TE) (end values).
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 14 Saturated fat intake (%TE) (end values).
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 15 Protein intake (%TE) (end values).
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1 Lower fat intake (30% or less of total energy (TE)) versus usual/modified fat intake by time point ranges, Outcome 16 Carbohydrate (%TE) (end values).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Alexy 2004 {published data only}
    1. Alexy U, Schultze‐Pawlitschko V, Sichert‐Hellert W, Kersting M. Cluster analysis of individuals with similar trends of fat intake during childhood and adolescence: a new approach to analyzing dietary data. Nutrition Research 2005;25:251‐60.
    1. Alexy U, Sichert‐Hellert W, Kersting M, Schultze‐Pawlitschko V. Pattern of long‐term fat intake and BMI during childhood and adolescence‐results of the DONALD Study. International Journal of Obesity Related Metabolic Disorders 2004;28(10):1203‐9. [DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802708] - DOI - PubMed
Ambrosini 2016 {published data only}
    1. Ambrosini G, Johns D, Northstone K, Emmett PM, Jebb SA. Free sugars and total fat are important characteristics of a dietary pattern associated with adiposity across childhood and adolescence. Journal of Nutrition 2016;146(4):778‐84. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Ambrosini G, Johns D, Northstone K, Jebb S. Fat, sugar or both? A prospective analysis of dietary patterns and adiposity in children. FASEB Journal 2015;29:1.
    1. Ambrosini GL, Emmett, PM, Northstone K, Howe LD, Tilling K, Jebb SA. Identification of a dietary pattern prospectively associated with increased adiposity during childhood and adolescence. International Journal of Obesity (2005) 2012;36(10):1299‐305. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Golding J, Pembrey M, Jones R, ALSPAC Study Team. ALSPAC‐The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. I. Study methodology. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 2001;15:74‐87. - PubMed
    1. Johnson L, Mander AP, Jones LR, Emmett PM, Jebb SA. A prospective analysis of dietary energy density at age 5 and 7 years and fatness at 9 years among UK children. International Journal of Obesity (2005) 2008;32(4):586‐93. - PubMed
Appannah 2015 {published data only}
    1. Ambrosini GL, Klerk NH, O'Sullivan TA, Beilin LJ, Oddy WH. The reliability of a Food Frequency Questionnaire for use among adolescents. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2009;63:1251‐9. - PubMed
    1. Appannah G, Pot GK, Huang RC, Oddy WH, Beilin LJ, Mori TA, et al. Identification of a dietary pattern associated with greater cardiometabolic risk in adolescence. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases : NMCD 2015;25(7):643‐50. - PMC - PubMed
Berkey 2005 {published data only}
    1. Berkey CS, Rockett H, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Milk, dairy fat, dietary calcium, and weight gain: a longitudinal study of adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 2005;159(6):543‐50. - PubMed
    1. Berkey CS, Rockett HR, Field AE, Gillman MW, Frazier AW, Camargo CA Jr, et al. Activity, dietary intake, and weight changes in a longitudinal study of preadolescent and adolescent boys and girls. Pediatrics 2000;105(4):E56. - PubMed
Bogaert 2003 {published data only}
    1. Bogaert N, Steinbeck K, Baur LA, Brock K, Bermingham MA. Food, activity and family ‐ environmental versus biochemical predictors of weight gain in children. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003;57(10):1242‐9. [DOI: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601677] - DOI - PubMed
Boreham 1999 {published data only}
    1. Boreham C, Savage JM, Primrose D, Cran G, Strain J. Coronary risk factors in schoolchildren. Archives of Disease in Childhood 1993;68(2):182‐6. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Boreham C, Twisk J, Mechelen W, Savage M, Strain J, Cran G. Relationships between the development of biological risk factors for coronary heart disease and lifestyle parameters during adolescence: the Northern Ireland Young Hearts Project. Public Health 1999;113(1):7‐12. - PubMed
Brixval 2009 {published data only}
    1. Brixval CS, Andersen LB, Heitmann BL. Fat intake and weight development from 9 to 16 years of age: the European youth heart study ‐ a longitudinal study. Obesity Facts 2009;2(3):166‐70. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Kring SI, Heitmann BL. Fiber intake, not dietary energy density, is associated with subsequent change in BMI z‐score among sub‐groups of children. Obesity Facts 2008;1(6):331‐8. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Wedderkopp N, Leboeuf‐Yde C, Andersen LB, Froberg K, Hansen HS. Back pain reporting pattern in a Danish population‐based sample of children and adolescents. Spine 2001;26(17):1879‐83. - PubMed
Butte 2007 {published data only}
    1. Butte N, Cai G, Cole A, Comuzzie AG. Viva la Familia Study: genetic and environmental contributions to childhood obesity and its comorbidities in the Hispanic population. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2006;84:646‐54. - PubMed
    1. Butte NF, Cai G, Cole SA, Wilson TA, Fisher JO, Zakeri IF, et al. Metabolic and behavioral predictors of weight gain in Hispanic children: the Viva la Familia Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;85(6):1478‐85. - PubMed
Cohen 2014 {published data only}
    1. Cohen DA, Ghosh‐Dastidar B, Conway TL, Evenson KR, Rodriguez R, Beckman R, et al. Energy balance in adolescent girls: the trial of activity for adolescent girls cohort. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.) 2014;22(3):772‐80. [DOI: 10.1002/oby.20536] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Davison 2001 {published data only}
    1. Davison K, Birch L. Child and parent characteristics as predictors of change in girls' body mass index. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2001;25(12):1834‐42. [DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801835] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Jago 2005 {published data only}
    1. Jago R, Baranowski T, Baranowski JC, Thompson D, Greaves KA. BMI from 3‐6y of age is predicted by TV viewing and physical activity, not diet. International Journal of Obesity (2005) 2005;29(6):557‐64. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Klesges 1995 {published data only}
    1. Klesges RC, Klesges LM, Eck LH, Shelton ML. A longitudinal analysis of accelerated weight gain in preschool children. Pediatrics 1995;95(1):126‐30. - PubMed
Lee 2001 {published data only}
    1. Lee Y, Mitchell DC, Smiciklas‐Wright H, Birch LL. Diet quality, nutrient intake, weight status, and feeding environments of girls meeting or exceeding recommendations for total dietary fat of the American Academy of Pediatrics. Pediatrics 2001;107(6):E95. - PMC - PubMed
Lee 2012 {published data only}
    1. Lee HH, Park HA, Kang JH, Cho YG, Park JK, Lee R, et al. Factors related to body mass index and body mass index change in Korean children: preliminary results from the obesity and metabolic disorders cohort in childhood. Korean Journal of Family Medicine 2012;33(3):134‐43. - PMC - PubMed
Magarey 2001 {published data only}
    1. Boulton T, Magarey AM. Effects of differences in dietary fat on growth, energy and nutrient intake from infancy to eight years of age. Acta Paediatrica (Oslo, Norway: 1992) 1995;84(2):146‐50. - PubMed
    1. Boulton TJ, Magarey AM, Cockington RA. Serum lipids and apolipoproteins from 1 to 15 years: changes with age and puberty, and relationships with diet, parental cholesterol and family history of ischaemic heart disease. Acta Paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992) 1995;84(10):1113‐8. - PubMed
    1. Magarey AM, Daniels LA, Boulton TJ, Cockington RA. Does fat intake predict adiposity in healthy children and adolescents aged 2‐15 y? A longitudinal analysis. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2001;55(6):471‐81. - PubMed
Mihas 2010 {published data only}
    1. Mihas C, Mariolis A, Manios Y, Naska A, Arapaki A, Mariolis‐Sapsakos T, et al. Evaluation of a nutrition intervention in adolescents of an urban area in Greece: short‐ and long‐term effects of the VYRONAS study. Public Health Nutrition 2010;13(5):712‐9. - PubMed
Morrison 2008 {published data only}
    1. Morrison JA, Glueck CJ, Horn PS, Schreiber GB, Wang P. Pre‐teen insulin resistance predicts weight gain, impaired fasting glucose, and type 2 diabetes at age 18‐19 y: a 10‐y prospective study of black and white girls. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;88(3):778‐88. - PubMed
    1. Morrison JA, Glueck CJ, Wang P. Preteen insulin levels interact with caloric intake to predict increases in obesity at ages 18 to 19 years: a 10‐year prospective study of black and white girls. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental 2010;59(5):718‐27. - PMC - PubMed
    1. The NHLBI Growth and Health Study Research Group. Obesity and cardiovascular disease risk factors and black and white girls: the NHLBI Growth and Health Study. American Journal of Public Health 1992;82(12):1613‐20. - PMC - PubMed
Niinikoski 1997a {published data only}
    1. Lapinleimu H, Viikari J, Jokinen E, Salo P, Routi T, Leino A, et al. Prospective randomized trial in 1062 infants of diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol. Lancet 1995;345:471‐6. - PubMed
    1. Niinikoski H, Viikari J, Ronnemaa T, Helenius H, Jokinen E, Lapinleimu H, et al. Regulation of growth of 7‐ to 36‐month‐old children by energy and fat intake in the prospective, randomized STRIP baby trial. Pediatrics 1997;100(5):810‐6. - PubMed
    1. Niinikoski H, Viikari J, Ronnemaa T, Lapinleimu H, Jokinen E, Salo P, et al. Prospective randomized trial of low‐saturated‐fat, low‐cholesterol diet during the first 3 years of life: the STRIP baby project. Circulation 1996;94:1386‐93. - PubMed
Obarzanek 1997 (cohort) {published data only}
    1. Obarzanek E, Hunsberger SA, Horn L, Hartmuller VV, Barton BA, Stevens VJ, et al. Safety of a fat‐reduced diet: the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Pediatrics 1997;100(1):51‐9. - PubMed
    1. Simons‐Morton DG, Hunsberger SA, Horn L, Barton BA, Robson AM, McMahon RP, et al. Nutrient intake and blood pressure in the Dietary Intervention Study in Children. Hypertension (Dallas, Tex.: 1979) 1997;29(4):930‐6. - PubMed
Obarzanek 2001 (RCT) {published data only}
    1. Anonymous. Efficacy and safety of lowering dietary intake of fat and cholesterol in children with elevated low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol. The Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). The Writing Group for the DISC Collaborative Research Group. JAMA 1995;273(18):1429‐35. - PubMed
    1. DISC Collaborative Research Group. Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC) with elevated low‐density‐lipoprotein cholesterol. Design and baseline characteristics. DISC Collaborative Research Group. Annals of Epidemiology 1993;3(4):393‐402. - PubMed
    1. Kimm SYS, Kwiterovich PO Jr, Santanello NC, Obarzanek E, Lakatos E, Lauer RM, et al. Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC) with elevated low‐density‐ lipoprotein cholesterol: design and baseline characteristics. Annals of Epidemiology 1993;3(4):393‐402. - PubMed
    1. Lauer RM, Obarzanek E, Hunsberger SA, Horn L, Hartmuller VW, Barton BA, et al. Efficacy and safety of lowering dietary intake of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol in children with elevated LDL cholesterol: the Dietary Intervention Study in Children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;72(5 Suppl):1332S‐42S. - PubMed
    1. Lauer RM, Obarzanek E, Kwiterovich PO, Kimm SY, Hunsberger SA, Barton BA, et al. Efficacy and safety of lowering dietary intake of fat and cholesterol in children with elevated low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol: the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Journal of the American Medical Association 1995;273(18):1429‐35. [DOI: ]
Schwandt 2011 {published data only}
    1. Schwandt P, Bertsch T, Haas GM. Sustained lifestyle advice and cardiovascular risk factors in 687 biological child‐parent pairs: the PEP Family Heart Study. Atherosclerosis 2011;219(2):937‐45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.09.032] - DOI - PubMed
Setayeshgar 2017 {published data only}
    1. Setayeshgar S, Ekwaru JP, Maximova K, Majumdar SR, Storey KE, McGavock J, et al. Dietary intake and prospective changes in cardiometabolic risk factors in children and youth. Physiologie Appliquee, Nutrition et Metabolisme [Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism] 2017;42(1):39‐45. - PubMed
Shea 1993 {published data only}
    1. Shea S, Basch CE, Stein AD, Contento IR, Irigoyen M, Zybert P. Is there a relationship between dietary fat and stature or growth in children three to five years of age?. Pediatrics 1993;92(4):579‐86. - PubMed
Skinner 2004 {published data only}
    1. Carruth BR, Skinner JD. The role of dietary calcium and other nutrients in moderating body fat in preschool children. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2001;25(4):559‐66. - PubMed
    1. Skinner JD, Bounds W, Carruth BR, Morris M, Ziegler P. Predictors of children's body mass index: a longitudinal study of diet and growth in children aged 2‐8 years. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2004;28(4):476‐82. - PubMed
    1. Skinner JD, Bounds W, Carruth BR, Ziegler P. Longitudinal calcium intake is negatively related to children's body fat indexes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2003;103(12):1626‐31. - PubMed
Tershakovec 1998 (cohort) {published data only}
    1. Tershakovec AM, Jawad AF, Stallings VA, Zemel BS, McKenzie JM, Stolley PD, et al. Growth of hypercholesterolemic children completing physician‐initiated low‐fat dietary intervention. Journal of Pediatrics 1998;133(1):28‐34. - PubMed
Tershakovec 1998 (RCT) {published data only}
    1. Stallings VA, Cortner JA, Shannon BM, Greene GW, Collins SE, Berman MK, et al. Preliminary report of a home‐based education program for dietary treatment of hypercholesterolemia in children. American Journal of Health Promotion 1993;8(2):106‐108. - PubMed
    1. Tershakovec AM, Jawad AF, Stallings VA, Zemel BS, McKenzie JM, Stolley PD, et al. Growth of hypercholesterolemic children completing physician‐initiated low‐fat dietary intervention. Journal of Pediatrics 1998;133(1):28‐34. - PubMed
    1. Tershakovec AM, Shannon BM, Achterberg CL, McKenzie JM, Martel JK, Smiciklas‐Wright H, et al. One‐year follow‐up of nutrition education for hypercholesterolemic children. American Journal of Public Health 1998;88(2):258‐61. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Adair 2001 {published data only}
    1. Adair LS, Kuzawa CW, Borja J. Maternal energy stores and diet composition during pregnancy program adolescent blood pressure. Circulation 2001;104(9):1034‐9. - PubMed
Agostoni 2000 {published data only}
    1. Agostoni C, Riva E, Scaglioni S, Marangoni F, Radaelli G, Giovannini M. Dietary fats and cholesterol in Italian infants and children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;72(5 Suppl):1384S‐91S. - PubMed
Ahola‐Olli 2014 {published data only}
    1. Ahola‐Olli AV, Pitkanen N, Kettunen J, Oikonen MK, Mikkila V, Lehtimaki T, et al. Interactions between genetic variants and dietary lipid composition: effects on circulating LDL cholesterol in children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2014;100(6):1569‐77. - PubMed
Alexy 2002 {published data only}
    1. Alexy U, Sichert‐Hellert W, Kersting M. Fifteen‐year time trends in energy and macronutrient intake in German children and adolescents: results of the DONALD study. British Journal of Nutrition 2002;87(6):595‐604. - PubMed
Altwaijri 2009 {published data only}
    1. Altwaijri YA, Day RS, Harrist RB, Dwyer J, Ausman LM, Labarthe DR. Sexual maturation affects diet‐blood total cholesterol association in children: Project HeartBeat!. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2009;37(1 Suppl):S65‐70. - PubMed
Alvirde‐Garcia 2013 {published data only}
    1. Alvirde‐Garcia U, Rodriguez‐Guerrero AJ, Henao‐Moran S, Gomez‐Perez FJ, Aguilar‐Salinas CA. Results of a community‐based life style intervention program for children [Resultados de un programa comunitario de intervencion en el estilo de vida en ninos]. Public Health of Mexico 2013;55 Suppl 3:406‐14. - PubMed
Arvidsson 2015 {published data only}
    1. Arvidsson L, Bogl LH, Eiben G, Hebestreit A, Nagy P, Tornaritis M, et al. Fat, sugar and water intakes among families from the IDEFICS intervention and control groups: first observations from I.Family. Obesity Reviews 2015;16(Suppl 2):127‐37. [DOI: 10.1111/obr.12325] - DOI - PubMed
Barton 2005 {published data only}
    1. Barton BA, Eldridge AL, Thompson D, Affenito SG, Striegel‐Moore RH, Franko DL, et al. The relationship of breakfast and cereal consumption to nutrient intake and body mass index: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2005;105(9):1383‐9. - PubMed
Berkey 2009 {published data only}
    1. Berkey CS, Colditz GA, Rockett HRH, Frazier AL, Willett WC. Dairy consumption and female height growth: prospective cohort study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 2009;18(6):1881‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Boulton 1995 {published data only}
    1. Boulton TJ, Magarey AM, Cockington RA. Tracking of serum lipids and dietary energy, fat and calcium intake from 1 to 15 years. Acta Paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992) 1995;84(9):1050‐5. - PubMed
Brown 2013 {published data only}
    1. Brown B, Noonan C, Harris KJ, Parker M, Gaskill S, Ricci C, et al. Developing and piloting the Journey to Native Youth Health program in Northern Plains Indian communities. Diabetes Educator 2013;39(1):109‐18. - PubMed
Brox 2002 {published data only}
    1. Brox J, Bjornstad E, Olaussen K, Osterud B, Almdahl S, Lochen ML. Blood lipids, fatty acids, diet and lifestyle parameters in adolescents from a region in northern Norway with a high mortality from coronary heart disease. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;56 (7):694‐700. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Burke 2001 {published data only}
    1. Burke V, Beilin LJ, Dunbar D. Family lifestyle and parental body mass index as predictors of body mass index in Australian children: a longitudinal study. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2001;25(2):147‐57. - PubMed
Caballero 2003 {published data only}
    1. Caballero B, Clay T, Davis SM, Ethelbah B, Rock BH, Lohman T, et al. Pathways: a school‐based, randomized controlled trial for the prevention of obesity in American Indian schoolchildren. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003;78(5):1030‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Cardel 2015 {published data only}
    1. Cardel M, Lemas DJ, Jackson KH, Friedman JE, Fernandez JR. Higher intake of PUFAs is associated with lower total and visceral adiposity and higher lean mass in a racially diverse sample of children. Journal of Nutrition 2015;145(9):2146‐52. - PMC - PubMed
Chen 2012 {published data only}
    1. Chen JL, Weiss S, Heyman MB, Lustig RH. Efficacy of a child‐centred and family‐based program in promoting healthy weight and healthy behaviors in Chinese American children: a randomized controlled study. Journal of Public Health (Oxford, England) 2012;32(2):219‐29. [DOI: 10.1093/pubmed/fdp105] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Choi 2011 {published data only}
    1. Choi H‐J, Joung H, Lee H‐J, Jang HB, Kang J‐H, Song J. The influence of dietary patterns on the nutritional profile in a Korean child cohort study. Osong Public Health and Research Perspectives 2011;2(1):59‐64. - PMC - PubMed
Coppinger 2010 {published data only}
    1. Coppinger T, Jeanes YM, Dabinett J, Vogele C, Reeves S. Physical activity and dietary intake of children aged 9‐11 years and the influence of peers on these behaviours: a 1‐year follow‐up. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;64(8):776‐81. - PubMed
Couch 2014 {published data only}
    1. Couch SC, Saelens BE, Hinn K, Dart KB, Khoury P, Mitsnefes M, et al. Effects of a clinic‐initiated behavioral nutrition intervention emphasizing the dash diet on blood pressure control in adolescents with elevated blood pressure. Journal of the American Society of Hypertension 2014;8(1):e116. [DOI: ]
Crawford 1995 {published data only}
    1. Crawford PB, Obarzanek E, Schreiber GB, Barrier P, Goldman S, Frederick MM, et al. The effects of race, household income, and parental education on nutrient intakes of 9‐ and 10‐year‐old girls. NHLBI Growth and Health Study. Annals of Epidemiology 1995;5(5):360‐8. - PubMed
Cresanta 1988 {published data only}
    1. Cresanta JL, Farris RP, Croft JB, Webber LS, Frank GC, Berenson GS. Trends in fatty acid intakes of 10‐year‐old children, 1973 to 1982. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1988;88(2):178‐84. - PubMed
Dalskov 2014 {published data only}
    1. Dalskov S‐M, Muller M, Ritz C, Damsgaard CT, Papadaki A, Saris WHM, et al. Effects of dietary protein and glycaemic index on biomarkers of bone turnover in children. British Journal of Nutrition 2014;111(7):1253‐62. - PubMed
Davies 1997 {published data only}
    1. Davies PSW. Diet composition and body mass index in pre‐school children. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997;51(7):443‐8. - PubMed
Deheeger 1996 {published data only}
    1. Deheeger M, Akrout M, Bellisle F, Rossignol C, Rolland‐Cachera MF. Individual patterns of food intake development in children: a 10 months to 8 years of age follow‐up study of nutrition and growth. Physiology & Behavior 1996;59(3):403‐7. - PubMed
Deheeger 2002 {published data only}
    1. Deheeger M, Bellisle F, Rolland‐Cachera MF. The French longitudinal study of growth and nutrition: data in adolescent males and females. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 2002;15(6):429‐38. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Dixon 2005 {published data only}
    1. Dixon LB, Pellizzon MA, Jawad Abbas F, Tershakovec AM. Calcium and dairy intake and measures of obesity in hyper‐ and normocholesterolemic children. Obesity Research 2005;13(10):1727‐38. - PubMed
Donnelly 1996 {published data only}
    1. Donnelly JE, Jacobsen DJ, Whatley JE, Hill JO, Swift LL, Cherrington A, et al. Nutrition and physical activity program to attenuate obesity and promote physical and metabolic fitness in elementary school children. Obesity Research 1996;4(3):229‐43. - PubMed
Dubois 2016 {published data only}
    1. Dubois L, Diasparra M, Bogl LH, Fontaine‐Bisson B, Bedard B, Tremblay RE, et al. Dietary intake at 9 years and subsequent body mass index in adolescent boys and girls: a study of monozygotic twin pairs. Twin Research and Human Genetics 2016;19(1):47‐59. [DOI: 10.1017/thg.2015.97] - DOI - PubMed
Dwyer 2002 {published data only}
    1. Dwyer JT, Feldman HA, Yang M, Webber LS, Must A, Perry CL, et al. Maintenance of lightweight correlates with decreased cardiovascular risk factors in early adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health 2002;31(2):117‐24. - PubMed
Dwyer 2003 {published data only}
    1. Dwyer JT, Michell P, Cosentino C, Webber L, Seed JM, Hoelscher D, et al. Fat‐sugar see‐saw in school lunches: impact of a low fat intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health 2003;32(6):428‐35. - PubMed
Eck 1992 {published data only}
    1. Eck LH, Klesges RC, Hanson CL, Slawson D. Children at familial risk for obesity: an examination of dietary intake, physical activity and weight status. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 1992;16(2):71‐8. - PubMed
Elder 2014 {published data only}
    1. Elder JP, Crespo NC, Corder K, Ayala GX, Slymen DJ, Lopez NV, et al. Childhood obesity prevention and control in city recreation centres and family homes: the MOVE/me Muevo Project. Pediatric Obesity 2014;9(3):218‐31. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Emmett 2015a {published data only}
    1. Emmett PM, Jones LR. Diet, growth, and obesity development throughout childhood in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Nutrition Reviews 2015;73:175‐206. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Emmett 2015b {published data only}
    1. Emmett PM, Jones LR, Northstone K. Dietary patterns in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Nutrition Reviews 2015;73(Suppl 3):207‐30. - PMC - PubMed
Epstein 2001 {published data only}
    1. Epstein LH, Gordy CC, Raynor HA, Beddome M, Kilanowski CK, Paluch R. Increasing fruit and vegetable intake and decreasing fat and sugar intake in families at risk for childhood obesity. Obesity Research 2001;9(3):171‐8. - PubMed
Evans 2010 {published data only}
    1. Evans CEL, Greenwood DC, Thomas JD, Cleghorn CL, Kitchen MS, et al. SMART lunch box intervention to improve the food and nutrient content of children's packed lunches: UK wide cluster randomised controlled trial. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2010;64(11):970‐6. - PubMed
Farris 1984a {published data only}
    1. Farris RP, Cresanta JL, Frank GC, Webber LS, Berenson GS. Dietary studies of children from a biracial population: intakes of fat and fatty acids in 10‐ and 13‐year‐olds. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1984;39(1):114‐28. - PubMed
Farris 1984b {published data only}
    1. Farris RP, Cresanta JL, Frank GC, Webber LS, Berenson GS. Dietary studies of children from a biracial population: intakes of fat and fatty acids in 10‐ and 13‐year olds. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1984;39(1):114‐28. - PubMed
Fitzgibbon 2002 {published data only}
    1. Fitzgibbon ML, Stolley MR, Dyer AR, Horn L, Kaufer CK. A community‐based obesity prevention program for minority children: rationale and study design for Hip‐Hop to Health Jr. Preventive Medicine 2002;34(2):289‐97. - PubMed
Fitzgibbon 2005 {published data only}
    1. Fitzgibbon ML, Stolley MR, Schiffer L, Horn L, Kauferchristoffel K, Dyer A. Two‐year follow‐up results for Hip‐Hop to Health Jr.: a randomized controlled trial for overweight prevention in preschool minority children. Journal of Pediatrics 2005;146(5):618‐25. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Foster 2008 {published data only}
    1. Foster GD, Sherman S, Borradaile KE, Grundy KM, Vander Veur SS, Nachmani J, et al. A policy‐based school intervention to prevent overweight and obesity. Pediatrics 2008;121(4):e794‐802. - PubMed
Frank 1985a {published data only}
    1. Frank GC, Farris RP, Cresanta JL. Dietary trends of 10‐ and 13‐year‐old children in a biracial community ‐ the Bogalusa heart study. Preventive Medicine 1985;14(1):123‐39. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Frank 1985b {published data only}
    1. Frank GC, Farris RP, Cresanta JL, Webber LS, Berenson GS. Dietary trends of 10‐ and 13‐year‐old children in a biracial community ‐ the Bogalusa Heart Study. Preventive Medicine 1985;14(1):123‐39. - PubMed
Gillis 2009 {published data only}
    1. Gillis B, Mobley C, Stadler DD, Hartstein J, Virus A, Volpe SL, et al. Rationale, design and methods of the HEALTHY study nutrition intervention component. International Journal of Obesity (2005) 2009;33 Suppl 4:S29‐36. - PMC - PubMed
Goldberg 1992 {published data only}
    1. Goldberg RJ, Ellison RC, Hosmer DW Jr, Capper AL, Puleo E, Gamble WJ, et al. Effects of alterations in fatty acid intake on the blood pressure of adolescents: the Exeter‐Andover Project. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992;56(1):71‐6. - PubMed
Gortmaker 1999 {published data only}
    1. Gortmaker SL, Peterson K, Wiecha J, Sobol AM, Dixit S, Fox MK, et al. Reducing obesity via a school‐based interdisciplinary intervention among youth: Planet Health. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 1999;153(4):409‐18. - PubMed
Harris 2016 {published data only}
    1. Harris C, Buyken A, Koletzko S, Berg A, Berdel D, Schikowski T, et al. Associations of dietary fatty acids with serum lipids from childhood to adolescence: results from the GINIplus and LISAplus studies. European Journal of Epidemiology 2016;31:S75. [DOI: ]
Harris 2017 {published data only}
    1. Harris C, Buyken A, Koletzko S, Berg A, Berdel D, Schikowski T, et al. Dietary fatty acids and changes in blood lipids during adolescence: the role of substituting nutrient intakes. Nutrients 2017;9(2):E127. - PMC - PubMed
Hendrie 2011 {published data only}
    1. Hendrie GA, Golley RK. Changing from regular‐fat to low‐fat dairy foods reduces saturated fat intake but not energy intake in 4‐13‐y‐old children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2011;93(5):1117‐27. - PubMed
Himes 2003 {published data only}
    1. Himes JH, Ring K, Gittelsohn J, Cunningham‐Sabo L, Weber J, Thompson J, et al. Impact of the pathways intervention on dietary intakes of American Indian schoolchildren. Preventive Medicine 2003;37(6 Pt 2):S55‐61. - PubMed
Hollis 1984 {published data only}
    1. Hollis JF, Sexton G, Connor SL, Calvin L, Pereira C, Matarazzo JD. The family heart dietary intervention program: community response and characteristics of joining and nonjoining families. Preventive Medicine 1984;13(3):276‐85. - PubMed
Hood 2000 {published data only}
    1. Hood MY, Moore LL, Sundarajan‐Ramamurti A, Singer M, Cupples LA, Ellison RC. Parental eating attitudes and the development of obesity in children. The Framingham Children's Study. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2000;24(10):1319‐25. - PubMed
Jacobson 1998 {published data only}
    1. Jacobson MS, Tomopoulos S, Williams CL, Arden MR, Deckelbaum RJ, Starc TJ. Normal growth in high‐risk hyperlipidemic children and adolescents with dietary intervention. Preventive Medicine 1998;27(6):775‐80. - PubMed
Jancey 2014 {published data only}
    1. Jancey JM, Dos Remedios Monteiro SM, Dhaliwal SS, Howat PA, Burns S, Hills AP, et al. Dietary outcomes of a community based intervention for mothers of young children: a randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 2014;11:120. - PMC - PubMed
Jimenez 2003 {published data only}
    1. Jimenez MM, Receveur O, Trifonopoulos M, Kuhnlein H, Paradis G, Macaulay AC. Comparison of the dietary intakes of two different groups of children (grades 4 to 6) before and after the Kahnawake Schools Diabetes Prevention Project. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2003;103(9):1191‐4. [DOI: 10.1053/jada.2003.50573] - DOI - PubMed
Karnehed 2006 {published data only}
    1. Karnehed N, Tynelius P, Heitmann BL, Rasmussen F. Physical activity, diet and gene‐environment interactions in relation to body mass index and waist circumference: the Swedish Young Male Twins Study. Public Health Nutrition 2006;9 (7):851‐8. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Khalil 2017 {published data only}
    1. Khalil H, Murrin C, O'Reilly M, Viljoen K, Segurado R, O'Brien J, et al. Total HDL cholesterol efflux capacity in healthy children ‐ associations with adiposity and dietary intakes of mother and child. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases : NMCD 2017;27(1):70‐7. - PubMed
Kiefte‐de Jong 2013 {published data only}
    1. Kiefte‐de Jong JC, Vries JH, Escher JC, Jaddoe VWV, Hofman A, Raat H, et al. Role of dietary patterns, sedentary behaviour and overweight on the longitudinal development of childhood constipation: the Generation R study. Maternal and Child Nutrition 2013;9(4):511‐23. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Kimm 1999 {published data only}
    1. Kimm SY, Pasagian‐Macaulay A, Aston CE, McAllister AE, Glynn NW, Kamboh MI, et al. Correlates of lipoprotein(a) levels in a biracial cohort of young girls: the NHLBI Growth and Health Study. Journal of Pediatrics 1999;135(2 Pt 1):169‐76. - PubMed
Kronsberg 2003 {published data only}
    1. Kronsberg SS, Obarzanek E, Affenito SG, Crawford PB, Sabry ZI, Schmidt M, et al. Macronutrient intake of black and white adolescent girls over 10 years: the NHLBI Growth and Health Study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2003;103(7):852‐60. - PubMed
Kuehl 1993 {published data only}
    1. Kuehl KS, Cockerham JT, Hitchings M, Slater D, Nixon G, Rifai N. Effective control of hypercholesterolemia in children with dietary interventions based in pediatric practice. Preventive Medicine 1993;22(2):154‐66. - PubMed
Kuzawa 2003 {published data only}
    1. Kuzawa CW, Adair LS, Avila JL, Cadungog JHC, Le N‐A. Atherogenic lipid profiles in Filipino adolescents with low body mass index and low dietary fat intake. American Journal of Human Biology 2003;15(5):688‐96. - PubMed
Kwiterovich 1997 {published data only}
    1. Kwiterovich PO Jr, Barton BA, McMahon RP, Obarzanek E, Hunsberger S, Simons‐Morton D, et al. Effects of diet and sexual maturation on low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol during puberty: the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Circulation 1997;96(8):2526‐33. - PubMed
Kwiterovich 2001 {published data only}
    1. Kwiterovich PO Jr. Safety and efficacy of treatment of children and adolescents with elevated low density lipoprotein levels with a step two diet or with lovastatin. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases : NMCD 2001;11 Suppl 5:30‐4. - PubMed
Lagstrom 1997a {published data only}
    1. Lagstrom H, Jokinen E, Seppanen R, Ronnemaa T, Viikari J, Valimaki I, et al. Nutrient intakes by young children in a prospective randomized trial of a low‐saturated fat, low‐cholesterol diet. The STRIP Baby Project. Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project for Babies. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 1997;151(2):181‐8. - PubMed
Lagstrom 1997b {published data only}
    1. Lagstrom H, Jokinen E, Seppanen R, Ronnemaa T, Viikari J, Valimaki I, et al. Nutrient intakes by young children in a prospective randomized trial of a low‐saturated fat, low‐cholesterol diet: the STRIP baby project. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 1997;151(2):181‐8. - PubMed
Lagstrom 1999 {published data only}
    1. Lagstrom H, Seppanen R, Jokinen E, Niinikoski H, Ronnemaa T, Viikari J, et al. Influence of dietary fat on the nutrient intake and growth of children from 1 to 5 y of age: the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999;69(3):516‐23. - PubMed
Larsen 2010 {published data only}
    1. Larsen TM, Dalskov S, Baak M, Jebb S, Kafatos A, Pfeiffer A, et al. The Diet, Obesity and Genes (Diogenes) Dietary Study in eight European countries ‐ a comprehensive design for long‐term intervention. Obesity Reviews 2010;11(1):76‐91. - PubMed
Lee 2007 {published data only}
    1. Lee SK, Novotny R, Daida YG, Vijayadeva V, Gittelsohn J. Dietary patterns of adolescent girls in Hawaii over a 2‐year period. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2007;107(6):956‐61. - PubMed
Lee 2014 {published data only}
    1. Lee A, Chowdhury R, Welsh J. Increased intake of non‐dairy sugars in foods and beverages is positively associated with annual increases in waist circumference among overweight and obese adolescent females. Circulation 2014;129:AMP52.
Lee 2017 {published data only}
    1. Lee HA, Hwang HJ, Oh SY, Park EA, Cho SJ, Kim HS, et al. The differential effects of changes in individual macronutrient intake on changes in lipid concentrations during childhood: from the Ewha Birth & Growth Cohort. Clinical Nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) 2017;17:30156‐5. - PubMed
Leung 2000a {published data only}
    1. Leung SS, Chan SM, Lui S, Lee WT, Davies DP. Growth and nutrition of Hong Kong children aged 0‐7 years. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 2000;36(1):56‐65. - PubMed
Leung 2000b {published data only}
    1. Leung SS, Lee WT, Lui SS, Ng MY, Peng XH, Luo HY, et al. Fat intake in Hong Kong Chinese children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;72(5 Suppl):1373S‐8S. - PubMed
Li 2008 {published data only}
    1. Li Ji, Wang Y. Tracking of dietary intake patterns is associated with baseline characteristics of urban low‐income African‐American adolescents. Journal of Nutrition 2008;138(1):94‐100. - PubMed
Libuda 2014 {published data only}
    1. Libuda L, Alexy U, Kersting M. Time trends in dietary fat intake in a sample of German children and adolescents between 2000 and 2010: Not quantity, but quality is the issue. British Journal of Nutrition 2014;111(1):141‐50. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Maclure 1991 {published data only}
    1. Maclure M, Travis LB, Willett W, MacMahon B. A prospective cohort study of nutrient intake and age at menarche. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1991;54(4):649‐56. - PubMed
Mamalakis 2001 {published data only}
    1. Mamalakis G, Kafatos A, Manios Y, Kalogeropoulos N, Andrikopoulos N. Adipose fat quality vs. quantity: relationships with children's serum lipid levels. Preventive Medicine 2001;33(6):525‐35. - PubMed
Manios 2002 {published data only}
    1. Manios Y, Moschandreas J, Hatzis C, Kafatos A. Health and nutrition education in primary schools of Crete: changes in chronic disease risk factors following a 6‐year intervention programme. British Journal of Nutrition 2002;88(3):315‐24. - PubMed
Manios 2006 {published data only}
    1. Manios Y, Kafatos A, Preventive, Medicine, Nutrition Clinic University of Crete Research Team. Health and nutrition education in primary schools in Crete: 10 years follow‐up of serum lipids, physical activity and macronutrient intake. British Journal of Nutrition 2006;95(3):568‐75. - PubMed
Marcus 2009 {published data only}
    1. Marcus C, Nyberg G, Nordenfelt A, Karpmyr M, Kowalski J, Ekelund U. A 4‐year, cluster‐randomized, controlled childhood obesity prevention study: STOPP. International Journal of Obesity (2005) 2009;33(4):408‐17. - PubMed
Maresh 1970 {published data only}
    1. Maresh MM, Beal VA. A longitudinal survey of nutrition intake, body size, and tissue measurements in healthy subjects during growth. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 1970;35(7):33‐9. - PubMed
Michels 2015a {published data only}
    1. Michels N, Kriemler S, Marques‐Vidal PM, Nydegger A, Puder J. Psychosocial quality of life, lifestyle and adiposity: a longitudinal study in preschoolers. Psychosomatic Medicine 2015;77(3):A29‐A30. - PubMed
Michels 2015b {published data only}
    1. Michels N, Kriemler S, Marques‐Vidal PM, Nydegger A, Puder JJ. Psychosocial quality‐of‐life, lifestyle and adiposity: a longitudinal study in preschoolers. Obesity Facts 2015;8:187‐8. [DOI: ]
Michels 2016 {published data only}
    1. Michels N, Susi K, Marques‐Vidal PM, Nydegger A, Puder JJ. Psychosocial quality‐of‐life, lifestyle and adiposity: a longitudinal study in pre‐schoolers (Ballabeina Study). International Journal of Behavioral Medicine 2016;23(3):383‐92. - PubMed
Newby 2003 {published data only}
    1. Newby PK, Peterson KE, Berkey CS, Leppert J, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Dietary composition and weight change among low‐income preschool children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2003;157(8):759‐64. - PubMed
Nicklas 1991 {published data only}
    1. Nicklas TA, Webber LS, Berenson GS. Studies of consistency of dietary intake during the first four years of life in a prospective analysis: Bogalusa Heart Study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1991;10(3):234‐41. - PubMed
Nicklas 1992 {published data only}
    1. Nicklas TA, Webber LS, Koschak M, Berenson GS. Nutrient adequacy of low fat intakes for children: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics 1992;89(2):221‐8. - PubMed
Niinikoski 1996 {published data only}
    1. Niinikoski H, Viikari J, Ronnemaa T, Lapinleimu H, Jokinen E, Salo P, et al. Prospective randomized trial of low‐saturated‐fat, low‐cholesterol diet during the first 3 years of life. The STRIP baby project. Circulation 1996;94(6):1386‐93. - PubMed
Niinikoski 1997b {published data only}
    1. Niinikoski H, Lapinleimu H, Viikari J, Ronnemaa T, Jokinen E, Seppanen R, et al. Growth until 3 years of age in a prospective, randomized trial of a diet with reduced saturated fat and cholesterol. Pediatrics 1997;99(5):687‐94. - PubMed
Niinikoski 2007 {published data only}
    1. Niinikoski H, Lagstrom H, Jokinen E, Siltala M, Ronnemaa T, Viikari J, et al. Impact of repeated dietary counseling between infancy and 14 years of age on dietary intakes and serum lipids and lipoproteins: the STRIP study. Circulation 2007;116(9):1032‐40. - PubMed
Niinikoski 2009 {published data only}
    1. Niinikoski H, Jula A, Viikari J, Ronnemaa T, Heino P, Lagstrom H, et al. Blood pressure is lower in children and adolescents with a low‐saturated‐fat diet since infancy: the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention project. Hypertension (Dallas, Tex.: 1979) 2009;53(6):918‐24. - PubMed
Niinikoski 2009a {published data only}
    1. Niinikoski H, Jula A, Viikari J, Ronnemaa T, Heino P, Lagstrom H, et al. Blood pressure is lower in children and adolescents with a low‐saturated‐fat diet since infancy the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention project. Hypertension 2009;53(6):918‐24. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Niinikoski 2012 {published data only}
    1. Niinikoski H, Ruottinen S. Is carbohydrate intake in the first years of life related to future risk of NCDs?. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases : NMCD 2012;22(10):770‐4. - PubMed
Niinikoski 2014 {published data only}
    1. Niinikoski H, Pahkala K, Viikari J, Ronnemaa T, Jula A, Lagstrom H, et al. The STRIP study: long‐term impact of a low saturated fat/low cholesterol diet. Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports 2014;8(11):1‐7. [DOI: ]
O'Sullivan 2011 {published data only}
    1. O'Sullivan TA, Ambrosini G, Beilin LJ, Mori TA, Oddy WH. Dietary intake and food sources of fatty acids in Australian adolescents. Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.) 2011;27(2):153‐9. - PubMed
Obarzanek 1994 {published data only}
    1. Obarzanek E, Schreiber GB, Crawford PB, Goldman SR, Barrier PM, Frederick MM, et al. Energy intake and physical activity in relation to indexes of body fat: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994;60(1):15‐22. - PubMed
Ohlund 2011 {published data only}
    1. Ohlund I, Hernell O, Hornell A, Lind T. Serum lipid and apolipoprotein levels in 4‐year‐old children are associated with parental levels and track over time. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2011;65(4):463‐9. [DOI: 10.1038/ejcn.2011.14] - DOI - PubMed
Ohrig 2001 {published data only}
    1. Ohrig E, Geiss HC, Haas GM, Schwandt P. The Prevention Education Program (PEP) Nuremberg: design and baseline data of a family oriented intervention study. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2001;25 Suppl 1:S89‐92. - PubMed
Oranta 2013 {published data only}
    1. Oranta O, Pahkala K, Ruottinen S, Niinikoski H, Lagstrom H, Viikari JSA, et al. Infancy‐onset dietary counseling of low‐saturated‐fat diet improves insulin sensitivity in healthy adolescents 15‐20 years of age: the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project (STRIP) study. Diabetes Care 2013;36(10):2952‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Osganian 1996 {published data only}
    1. Osganian SK, Ebzery MK, Montgomery DH, Nicklas TA, Evans MA, Mitchell PD, et al. Changes in the nutrient content of school lunches: results from the CATCH Eat Smart Food service Intervention. Preventive Medicine 1996;25(4):400‐12. - PubMed
Paineau 2008 {published data only}
    1. Paineau DL, Beaufils F, Boulier A, Cassuto D‐A, Chwalow J, Combris P, et al. Family dietary coaching to improve nutritional intakes and body weight control: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2008;162(1):34‐43. - PubMed
Paineau 2010 {published data only}
    1. Paineau D, Beaufils F, Boulier A, Cassuto DA, Chwalow J, Combris P, et al. The cumulative effect of small dietary changes may significantly improve nutritional intakes in free‐living children and adults. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;64(8):782‐91. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Patrick 2006 {published data only}
    1. Patrick K, Calfas KJ, Norman GJ, Zabinski MF, Sallis JF, Rupp J, et al. Randomized controlled trial of a primary care and home‐based intervention for physical activity and nutrition behaviors: PACE+ for adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2006;160(2):128‐36. - PubMed
Pimpin 2016 {published data only}
    1. Pimpin L, Jebb S, Johnson L, Wardle J, Ambrosini GL. Dietary protein intake is associated with body mass index and weight up to 5 y of age in a prospective cohort of twins. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2016;103(2):389‐97. - PMC - PubMed
Post 1997 {published data only}
    1. Post GB, Kemper HCG, Twisk J, Mechelen W. The association between dietary patterns and cardio vascular disease risk indicators in healthy youngsters: Results covering fifteen years of longitudinal development. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997;51(6):387‐93. - PubMed
Proctor 2003 {published data only}
    1. Proctor MH, Moore LL, Gao D, Cupples LA, Bradlee ML, Hood MY, et al. Television viewing and change in body fat from preschool to early adolescence: the Framingham Children's Study. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2003;27(7):827‐33. - PubMed
Raitakari 2005 {published data only}
    1. Raitakari OT, Ronnemaa T, Jarvisalo MJ, Kaitosaari T, Volanen I, Kallio K, et al. Endothelial function in healthy 11‐year‐old children after dietary intervention with onset in infancy: the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project for children (STRIP). Circulation 2005;112(24):3786‐94. - PubMed
Rask‐Nissila 2000a {published data only}
    1. Rask‐Nissila L, Jokinen E, Terho P, Tammi A, Lapinleimu H, Ronnemaa T, et al. Neurological development of 5‐year‐old children receiving a low‐saturated fat, low‐cholesterol diet since infancy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000;284(8):993‐1000. - PubMed
Rask‐Nissila 2000b {published data only}
    1. Rask‐Nissila L, Jokinen E, Ronnemaa T, Viikari J, Tammi A, Niinikoski H, et al. Prospective, randomized, infancy‐onset trial of the effects of a low‐saturated‐fat, low‐cholesterol diet on serum lipids and lipoproteins before school age: The Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project (STRIP). Circulation 2000;102(13):1477‐83. - PubMed
Rask‐Nissila 2002a {published data only}
    1. Rask‐Nissila L, Jokinen E, Viikari J, Tammi A, Ronnemaa T, Marniemi J, et al. Impact of dietary intervention, sex, and apolipoprotein E phenotype on tracking of serum lipids and apolipoproteins in 1‐ to 5‐year‐old children: the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project (STRIP). Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 2002;22(3):492‐8. - PubMed
Rask‐Nissila 2002b {published data only}
    1. Rask‐Nissila L, Jokinen E, Terho P, Tammi A, Hakanen M, Ronnemaa T, et al. Effects of diet on the neurologic development of children at 5 years of age: the STRIP project. Journal of Pediatrics 2002;140(3):328‐33. - PubMed
Rehkopf 2011 {published data only}
    1. Rehkopf DH, Laraia BA, Segal M, Braithwaite D, Epel E. The relative importance of predictors of body mass index change, overweight and obesity in adolescent girls. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity 2011;6(2‐2):e233‐42. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Robertson 1999 {published data only}
    1. Robertson SM, Cullen KW, Baranowski J, Baranowski T, Hu S, Moor C. Factors related to adiposity among children aged 3 to 7 years. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1999;99(8):938‐43. - PubMed
Ruxton 1995 {published data only}
    1. Ruxton CH, Kirk TR, Holmes MA, Belton NR. No adverse effects on growth seen in Scottish school children consuming either low fat diets or diets relatively high in non‐starch polysaccharide. Health Bulletin 1995;53(6):398‐401. - PubMed
Sallis 2003 {published data only}
    1. Sallis JF, McKenzie TL, Conway TL, Elder JP, Prochaska JJ, Brown M, et al. Environmental interventions for eating and physical activity: a randomized controlled trial in middle schools. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2003;24(3):209‐17. - PubMed
Sanchez‐Bayle 2003 {published data only}
    1. Sanchez‐Bayle M, Soriano‐Guillen L. Influence of dietary intervention on growth in children with hypercholesterolaemia. Acta Paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992) 2003;92(9):1043‐6. - PubMed
Sawaya 1998 {published data only}
    1. Sawaya AL, Grillo LP, Verreschi I, Silva AC, Roberts SB. Mild stunting is associated with higher susceptibility to the effects of high fat diets: studies in a shantytown population in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Journal of Nutrition 1998;128(2 Suppl):415S‐20S. - PubMed
Siega‐Riz 2011 {published data only}
    1. Siega‐Riz AM, Ghormli L, Mobley C, Gillis B, Stadler D, Hartstein J, et al. The effects of the HEALTHY study intervention on middle school student dietary intakes. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 2011;8:7. - PMC - PubMed
Simell 1999 {published data only}
    1. Simell O, Niinikoski H, Viikari J, Rask‐Nissila L, Tammi A, Ronnemaa T. Cardiovascular disease risk factors in young children in the STRIP baby project. Special Turku coronary Risk factor Intervention Project for children. Annals of Medicine 1999;31 Suppl 1:55‐61. - PubMed
Spruijt‐Metz 2002 {published data only}
    1. Spruijt‐Metz D, Lindquist CH, Birch LL, Fisher JO, Goran MI. Relation between mothers' child‐feeding practices and children's adiposity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2002;75(3):581‐6. - PubMed
Spruijt‐Metz 2006 {published data only}
    1. Spruijt‐Metz D, Li C, Cohen E, Birch L, Goran M. Longitudinal influence of mother's child‐feeding practices on adiposity in children. Journal of Pediatrics 2006;148(3):314‐20. - PubMed
Stice 2015 {published data only}
    1. Stice E, Yokum S, Burger K, Rohde P, Shaw H, Gau JM. A pilot randomized trial of a cognitive reappraisal obesity prevention program. Physiology and Behavior 2015;138:124‐32. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Stone 1996 {published data only}
    1. Stone EJ, Osganian SK, McKinlay SM, Wu MC, Webber LS, Luepker RV, et al. Operational design and quality control in the CATCH multicenter Trial. Preventive Medicine 1996;25(4):384‐99. - PubMed
Stone 2003 {published data only}
    1. Stone EJ, Norman JE, Davis SM, Stewart D, Clay TE, Caballero B, et al. Design, implementation, and quality control in the Pathways American‐Indian multicenter trial. Preventive Medicine 2003;37(6 Pt 2):S13‐23. - PMC - PubMed
Story 2003 {published data only}
    1. Story M, Snyder MP, Anliker J, Weber JL, Cunningham‐Sabo L, Stone EJ, et al. Changes in the nutrient content of school lunches: results from the Pathways study. Preventive Medicine 2003;37(6 Pt 2):S35‐45. - PubMed
Talvia 2004 {published data only}
    1. Talvia S, Lagström H, Räsänen M, Salminen M, Räsänen L, Salo P, et al. A randomized intervention since infancy to reduce intake of saturated fat: calorie (energy) and nutrient intakes up to the age of 10 years in the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2004;158(1):41‐7. [DOI: 10.1001/archpedi.158.1.41] - DOI - PubMed
Telford 2012 {published data only}
    1. Telford R, Cunningham R, Telford R, Potter J, Hickman P, Kerrigan J, et al. Do changes in physical activity, fitness, adiposity or diet influence insulin resistance in boys and girls? The LOOK study. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 2012;15:S75. [DOI: ]
Telford 2015 {published data only}
    1. Telford R, Cunningham RB, Waring P, Telford RM, Potter JM, Hickman PE, et al. Sensitivity of blood lipids to changes in adiposity, exercise, and diet in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2015;47(5):974‐82. - PubMed
Teufel 1999 {published data only}
    1. Teufel NI, Perry CL, Story M, Flint‐Wagner HG, Levin S, Clay TE, et al. Pathways family intervention for third‐grade American Indian children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999;69(4 Suppl):803S‐9S. - PMC - PubMed
Treuth 2003 {published data only}
    1. Treuth MS, Sunehag AL, Trautwein LM, Bier DM, Haymond MW, Butte NF. Metabolic adaptation to high‐fat and high‐carbohydrate diets in children and adolescents. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003;77(2):479‐89. - PubMed
Trevino 2004 {published data only}
    1. Trevino RP, Yin Z, Hernandez A, Hale DE, Garcia O, Mobley C. Impact of the Bienestar school‐based diabetes mellitus prevention program on fasting capillary glucose levels: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2004;158(9):911‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Vandongen 1995 {published data only}
    1. Vandongen R, Jenner DA, Thompson C, Taggart AC, Spickett EE, Burke V, et al. A controlled evaluation of a fitness and nutrition intervention program on cardiovascular health in 10‐ to 12‐year‐old children. Preventive Medicine 1995;24(1):9‐22. - PubMed
Verduci 2007 {published data only}
    1. Verduci E, Radaelli G, Stival G, Salvioni M, Giovannini M, Scaglioni S. Dietary macronutrient intake during the first 10 years of life in a cohort of Italian children. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 2007;45(1):90‐5. - PubMed
Vobecky 1988 {published data only}
    1. Vobecky JS, David P, Vobecky J. Identification of risk factors of hypercholesterolemia in children ‐ 9‐year follow‐up [Identification des facteurs de risque de l'hypercholesterolemie chez les enfants ‐ suivi apres 9 ans]. Revue d'Epidémiologie et de Santé Publique 1988;36(6):409‐20. - PubMed
Voortman 2016 {published data only}
    1. Voortman T, Hooven EH, Tielemans MJ, Hofman A, Kiefte‐de Jong JC, Jaddoe VWV, et al. Protein intake in early childhood and cardiometabolic health at school age: the Generation R Study. European Journal of Nutrition 2016;55(6):2117‐27. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Walker 1992 {published data only}
    1. Walker R, Heller R, Redman S, O'Connell D, Boulton J. Reduction of ischemic heart disease risk markers in the teenage children of heart attack patients. Preventive Medicine 1992;21(5):616‐29. - PubMed
Walter 1989 {published data only}
    1. Walter HJ. Primary prevention of chronic disease among children: the school‐based "Know Your Body" intervention trials. Health Education Quarterly 1989;16(2):201‐14. - PubMed
Wang 2000 {published data only}
    1. Wang Y, Ge K, Popkin BM. Tracking of body mass index from childhood to adolescence: a 6‐y follow‐up study in China. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000;72(4):1018‐24. - PubMed
Wang 2003 {published data only}
    1. Wang Y, Ge K, Popkin BM. Why do some overweight children remain overweight, whereas others do not?. Public Health Nutrition 2003;6(6):549‐58. - PubMed
Wang 2014 {published data only}
    1. Wang J, Light K, Henderson M, O'Loughlin J, Mathieu M, Paradis G, et al. Consumption of added sugars from liquid but not solid sources predicts impaired glucose homeostasis and insulin resistance among youth at risk of obesity. Journal of Nutrition 2014;144(1):81‐6. - PubMed
Williams 1998 {published data only}
    1. Williams CL, Squillace MM, Bollella MC, Brotanek J, Campanaro L, D'Agostino, et al. Healthy Start: a comprehensive health education program for preschool children. Preventive Medicine 1998;27(2):216‐23. - PubMed
Williams 2002 {published data only}
    1. Williams CL, Bollella MC, Strobino BA, Spark A, Nicklas TA, Tolosi LB, et al. "Healthy‐Start": outcome of an intervention to promote a heart healthy diet in preschool children. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2002;21(1):62‐71. - PubMed
Williams 2004 {published data only}
    1. Williams CL, Strobino BA, Bollella M, Brotanek J. Cardiovascular risk reduction in preschool children: the "Healthy Start" project. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2004;23(2):117‐23. - PubMed
Williams 2008 {published data only}
    1. Williams Cl, Strobino BA. Childhood diet, overweight, and CVD risk factors: the Healthy Start Project. Preventive Cardiology 2008;11(1):11‐20. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Williamson 2010 {published data only}
    1. Williamson DA, Champagne CM, Harsha D, Han H, Martin CK, Newton R, et al. Efficacy of two obesity prevention programs in rural schools: Primary outcomes for the Louisiana (LA) health study. Obesity Reviews 2010;11:59. [DOI: ]
Wright 2010 {published data only}
    1. Wright CM, Emmett PM, Ness AR, Reilly JJ, Sherriff A. Tracking of obesity and body fatness through mid‐childhood. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2010;95(8):612‐7. [DOI: ] - PubMed
Zaqout 2016 {published data only}
    1. Zaqout M, Michels N, Bammann K, Ahrens W, Sprengeler O, Molnar D, et al. Influence of physical fitness on cardio‐metabolic risk factors in European children. The IDEFICS study. International Journal of Obesity (2005) 2016;40(7):1119‐25. - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Khalil 2015 {published data only}
    1. Khalil H, Murrin C, Viljoen K, O'Brien J, Segurado R, Kelleher C. Developmental trajectories of body mass index (BMI) from birth to late childhood and their relation with paternal and child nutrients intake. Obesity Facts 2014;7:145. [DOI: ]
    1. Khalil H, Murrin C, Viljoen K, Segurado R, Somerville R, O'Brien J, et al. Metabolic syndrome risk in Irish children is associated with maternal diet: prospective findings from the lifeways crossgeneration cohort study 2001‐2014. Atherosclerosis 2015;241(1):e171.
Twisk 1998 {published data only}
    1. Koppes LJ, Boon N, Nooyens ACJ, Mechelen W, Saris WHM. Macronutrient distribution over a period of 23 years in relation to energy intake and body fatness. British Journal of Nutrition 2009;101(1):108‐15. - PubMed
    1. Twisk JW, Kemper HC, Mechelen W, Post GB, Lenthe FJ. Body fatness: longitudinal relationship of body mass index and the sum of skinfolds with other risk factors for coronary heart disease. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 1998;22(9):915‐22. - PubMed

Additional references

Ajala 2013
    1. Ajala O, English P, Pinkney J. Systematic review and meta‐analysis of different dietary approaches to the management of type 2 diabetes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2013;97:505‐16. - PubMed
Aljadani 2013
    1. Aljadani H, Patterson A, Sibbritt D, Collins C. The association between diet quality and weight change in adults over time: a systematic review of prospective cohort studies. Diet Quality: An Evidence Based Approach. 2. New York (NY): Springer, 2013:3‐27. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-7315-2_1] - DOI
Aljadani 2015
    1. Aljadani H, Patterson A, Sibbritt D, Collins CE. Diet quality and weight change in adults over time: a systematic review of cohort studies. Current Nutrition Reports 2015;4:88‐101.
Ambrosini 2014
    1. Ambrosini GL. Childhood dietary patterns and later obesity: a review of the evidence. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2014;73:137‐46. - PubMed
Benatar 2013
    1. Benatar JR, Sidhu K, Stewart RA, Benatar JR, Sidhu K, Stewart RAH. Effects of high and low fat dairy food on cardio‐metabolic risk factors: a meta‐analysis of randomized studies. PloS One 2013;8:e76480. - PMC - PubMed
Chaput 2014
    1. Chaput JP. Findings from the Quebec Family Study on the Etiology of Obesity: genetics and environmental highlights. Current Obesity Reports 2014;3:54‐66. - PMC - PubMed
Cochrane Methods
    1. Cochrane Methods. Tool to assess risk of bias in cohort studies. methods.cochrane.org/sites/methods.cochrane.org.bias/files/public/upload... (accessed prior to 3 January 2018).
Cole 2000
    1. Cole TJ, Bellizzi MC, Flegal KM, Dietz WH. Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. BMJ 2000;320:1240‐3. - PMC - PubMed
Covidence [Computer program]
    1. Veritas Health Innovation. Covidence systematic review software. Melbourne (Australia): Veritas Health Innovation, 2017.
de Onis 2007
    1. Onis M, Onyango AW, Borghi E, Siyam A, Nishida C, Siekmann J. Development of a WHO growth reference for school‐aged children and adolescents. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2007;85:660‐7. - PMC - PubMed
de Onis 2010
    1. Onis M, Blossner M, Borghi E. Global prevalence and trends of overweight and obesity among preschool children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2010;92:1257‐64. - PubMed
Fenner 2016
    1. Fenner AA, Howie EK, Davis MC, Straker LM. Relationships between psychosocial outcomes in adolescents who are obese and their parents during a multi‐disciplinary family‐based healthy lifestyle intervention: one‐year follow‐up of a waitlist controlled trial (Curtin University’s Activity, Food and Attitudes Program). Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 2016;14(1):100. - PMC - PubMed
GBD 2017a
    1. GBD 2016 Risk Factors Collaborators. Worldwide trends in body‐mass index, underweight,overweight, and obesity from 1975 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 2416 population‐based measurement studies in128·9 million children, adolescents, and adults. Lancet 2017;S0140‐6736(17):32129‐3. [DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32479-0] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
GBD 2017b
    1. GBD 2016 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990‐2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet 2017;390:1345‐422. - PMC - PubMed
Gibson 2005
    1. Gibson RS. Measuring food consumption of individuals. In: Gibson RS editor(s). Principles of Nutritional Assessment. 2nd Edition. New York (NY): Oxford University Press, 2005:27‐64.
Golding 2001
    1. Golding J, Pembrey M, Jones R, ALSPAC Study Team. ALSPAC‐The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. I. Study methodology. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 2001;15:74‐87. - PubMed
Gow 2014
    1. Gow ML, Ho M, Burrows TL, Baur LA, Stewart L, Hutchesson MJ, et al. Impact of dietary macronutrient distribution on BMI and cardiometabolic outcomes in overweight and obese children and adolescents: a systematic review. Nutrition Reviews 2014;72:453‐70. - PubMed
GRADEpro GDT [Computer program]
    1. GRADE Working Group. GRADEpro GDT. GRADE Working Group and Evidence Prime, 2017.
Guyatt 2011
    1. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist G, Kunz R, Brozek J, Alonso‐Coello P, et al. GRADE guidelines: 4. Rating the quality of evidence ‐ study limitations (risk of bias). Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2011;64:407‐15. - PubMed
Havranek 2011
    1. Havranek EP. A Mediterranean diet reduces cardiovascular risk factors in overweight patients compared with a low‐fat diet. ACP Journal Club 2011;155(12):JC6‐3. - PubMed
Higgins 2011a
    1. Higgins JPT, Altman DG, Sterne JAC. Chapter 8: Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In: Higgins JPT, Green S, editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Higgins 2011b
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S, editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Hoffman 2017
    1. Hoffmann TC, Oxman AD, Ioannidis JP, Moher D, Lasserson TJ, Tovey DI, et al. Enhancing the usability of systematic reviews by improving the consideration and description of interventions. BMJ 2017;358:j2998. - PubMed
Hooper 2015b
    1. Hooper L, Martin N, Abdelhamid A, Davey Smith G. Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 6. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011737] - DOI - PubMed
Hu 2012
    1. Hu T, Mills KT, Yao L, Demanelis K, Eloustaz M, Yancy WS Jr, et al. Effects of low‐carbohydrate diets versus low‐fat diets on metabolic risk factors: a meta‐analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. American Journal of Epidemiology 2012;176 Suppl 7:S44‐54. - PMC - PubMed
Jakes 2004
    1. Jakes RW, Day NE, Luben R, Welch A, Bingham S, Mitchell J, et al. Adjusting for energy intake ‐ what measure to use in nutritional epidemiological studies?. International Journal of Epidemiology 2004;33:1382‐6. - PubMed
Jayarajan 1980
    1. Jayarajan P, Reddy V, Mohanran M. Effect of dietary fat on absorption of beta‐carotene from green leafy vegetables in children. Indian Journal of Medical Research 1980;71:53‐6. - PubMed
Johnson 2008
    1. Johnson L, Mander AP, Jones LR, Emmett PM, Jebb SA. Energy‐dense, low‐fiber, high‐fat dietary pattern is associated with increased fatness in childhood. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008;87(4):846‐54. - PubMed
Kratz 2013
    1. Kratz MB. The relationship between high‐fat dairy consumption and obesity, cardiovascular, and metabolic disease. European Journal of Nutrition 2013;52:1‐24. - PubMed
LeBlanc 2012
    1. LeBlanc AG, Spence JC, Carson V, Gorber SC, Dillman C, Janssen I, et al. Systematic review of sedentary behaviour and health indicators in the early years (aged 0‐4 years). Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 2012;37:753‐72. - PubMed
Lobstein 2004
    1. Lobstein T, Baur L, Uauy R, IASO International Obesity Task Force. Obesity in children and young people: a crisis in public health. Obesity Reviews 2004;5(Suppl 1):4‐104. - PubMed
McGloin 2002
    1. McGloin AF, Livingstone MBE, Greene LC, Webb SE, Gibson JMA, Jebb SA, et al. Energy and fat intake in obese and lean children at varying risk of obesity. International Journal of Obesity (2005) 2002;26:200‐7. - PubMed
McNeill 2017
    1. McNeill A, Gravely S, Hitchman SC, Bauld L, Hammond D, Hartmann‐Boyce J. Tobacco packaging design for reducing tobacco use. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2017, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011244.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Ng 2014
    1. Ng M, Fleming T, Robinson M, Thomson B, Graetz N, Margono C, et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980‐2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2014;384:766‐81. - PMC - PubMed
Ni 2010
    1. Ni MC, Aston LM, Jebb SA. Effects of worksite health promotion interventions on employee diets: a systematic review. BMC Public Health 2010;10:62. - PMC - PubMed
Parsons 1999
    1. Parsons TJ, Power C, Logan S, Summerbell CD. Childhood predictors of adult obesity: a systematic review. International Journal of Obesity 1999;23(Suppl 8):S1‐S107. - PubMed
Pollock 2015
    1. Pollock NK. Childhood obesity, bone development, and cardiometabolic risk factors. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 2015;410:52‐63. - PMC - PubMed
Pérez‐Escamilla 2012
    1. Pérez‐Escamilla R, Obbagy JE, Altman JM, Essery EV, McGrane MM, Wong YP, et al. Dietary energy density and body weight in adults and children: a systematic review. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 2012;112(5):671‐84. - PubMed
RevMan 2014 [Computer program]
    1. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.3. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
Rhee 2014
    1. Rhee JJ, Cho E, Willett WC. Energy‐adjustment of nutrient intakes is preferable to adjustment using body weight and physical activity in epidemiologic analyses. Public Health Nutrition 2014;17(5):1054‐60. - PMC - PubMed
Ribaya‐Mercado 2007
    1. Ribaya‐Mercado JD, Maramag CC, Tengco LW, Dolnikowski GG, Blumberg JB, Solon FS. Carotene‐rich plant foods ingested with minimal dietary fat enhance the total‐body vitamin A pool size in Filipino schoolchildren as assessed by stable‐isotope‐dilution methodology. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;85(4):1041‐9. - PubMed
Rouhani 2016
    1. Rouhani MH, Haghighatdoost F, Surkan PJ, Azadbakht L. Associations between dietary energy density and obesity: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of observational studies. Nutrition 2016;32(10):1037‐47. - PubMed
Schwingshackl 2013a
    1. Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. Comparison of effects of long‐term low‐fat vs high‐fat diets on blood lipid levels in overweight or obese patients: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition & Dietetics 2013;113:1640‐61. - PubMed
Schwingshackl 2013b
    1. Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. Long‐term effects of low‐fat diets either low or high in protein on cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Nutrition Journal 2013;12:48. - PMC - PubMed
Schünemann 2011
    1. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Higgins JPT, Gunn E, Vist GE, Paul Glasziou P, et al. Chapter 11: Presenting results and 'Summary of findings' tables. In: Higgins JPT, Green, editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Shim 2014
    1. Shim J, Oh K, Chang Kim HC. Dietary assessment methods in epidemiologic studies. Epidemiology and Health 2014;36:e2014009. - PMC - PubMed
UNICEF 2017
    1. UNICEF, WHO, World Bank. Levels and Trends in Child Malnutrition: UNICEF‐WHO‐World Bank Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates. UNICEF, New York: UNICEF, 2017.
Van't Hoff 2015
    1. Van't Hoff W, Offringa M, Star Child Health group. StaR Child Health: developing evidence‐based guidance for the design, conduct and reporting of paediatric trials. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2015;100(2):189‐92. - PubMed
WCRF/AICR 2009
    1. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Preventability of Cancer by Food, Nutrition, and Physical Activity: Appendix A. Policy and Action for Cancer Prevention. Food, Nutrition, and Physical Activity: a Global Perspective. Washington (DC): AICR, 2009.
WHO 2004
    1. World Health Organization. Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health. World Health Assembly Resolution 57.17. Geneva (Switzerland): World Health Organization, 2004.
WHO 2016
    1. World Health Organization. Report of the commission on ending childhood obesity 2016. apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/204176/1/9789241510066_eng.pdf?ua=1&am... (accessed 6 November 2017).
Wolfram 2015
    1. Wolfram G, Bechthold A, Boeing H, Ellinger S, Hauner H, Kroke A, et al. Evidence‐based guideline of the German Nutrition Society: fat intake and prevention of selected nutrition‐related diseases. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2015;67:141‐204. - PubMed
Yang 2012
    1. Yang WY, Williams LT, Collins C, Siew Swee CW. The relationship between dietary patterns and overweight and obesity in children of Asian developing countries: a systematic review. JBI Library of Systematic Reviews 2012;10(58):4568‐99. - PubMed
Yang 2013
    1. Yang Z, Huffman SL. Nutrition in pregnancy and early childhood and associations with obesity in developing countries. Maternal & Child Nutrition 2013;9(Suppl 1):105‐19. - PMC - PubMed
Yu‐Poth 1999
    1. Yu‐Poth S, Zhao G, Etherton T, Naglak M, Jonnalagadda S, Kris‐Etherton PM. Effects of the National Cholesterol Education Program's Step I and Step II dietary intervention programs on cardiovascular disease risk factors: a meta‐analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999;69:632‐46. - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Hooper 2000
    1. Hooper L, Summerbell CD, Higgins JPT, Thompson RL, Clements G, Capps N, et al. Reduced or modified dietary fat for prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2000, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002137] - DOI - PubMed
Hooper 2001
    1. Hooper L, Summerbell CD, Higgins JPT, Thompson RL, Capps N, Davey Smith G, et al. Dietary fat intake and prevention of cardiovascular disease: systematic review. BMJ 2001;322:757‐63. - PMC - PubMed
Hooper 2012
    1. Hooper L, Abdelhamid A, Moore HJ, Douthwaite W, Skeaff CM, Summerbell CD. Effect of reducing total fat intake on body weight: systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomised controlled trials and cohort studies. BMJ 2012;345:e7666. - PMC - PubMed
Hooper 2015a
    1. Hooper L, Abdelhamid A, Bunn D, Brown T, Summerbell CD, Skeaff CM. Effects of total fat intake on body weight. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 8. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011834] - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Publication types