Mupirocin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Background: Mupirocin is widely used for nasal decolonization of Staphylococcus aureus to prevent subsequent staphylococcal infection in patients and healthcare personnel. However, the prolonged and unrestricted use has led to the emergence of mupirocin-resistant (mupR) S. aureus. The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the prevalence, phenotypic and molecular characteristics, and geographic spread of mupR S. aureus in Africa.

Methods: We examined five electronic databases (EBSCOhost, Google Scholar, ISI Web of Science, MEDLINE, and Scopus) for relevant English articles on screening for mupR S. aureus from various samples in Africa. In addition, we performed random effects meta-analysis of proportions to determine the pooled prevalence of mupR S. aureus in Africa. The search was conducted until 3 August 2016.

Results: We identified 43 eligible studies of which 11 (26%) were obtained only through Google Scholar. Most of the eligible studies (28/43; 65%) were conducted in Nigeria (10/43; 23%), Egypt (7/43; 16%), South Africa (6/43; 14%) and Tunisia (5/43; 12%). Overall, screening for mupR S. aureus was described in only 12 of 54 (22%) African countries. The disk diffusion method was the widely used technique (67%; 29/43) for the detection of mupR S. aureus in Africa. The mupA-positive S. aureus isolates were identified in five studies conducted in Egypt (n = 2), South Africa (n = 2), and Nigeria (n = 1). Low-level resistance (LmupR) and high-level resistance (HmupR) were both reported in six human studies from South Africa (n = 3), Egypt (n = 2) and Libya (n = 1). Data on mupR-MRSA was available in 11 studies from five countries, including Egypt, Ghana, Libya, Nigeria and South Africa. The pooled prevalence (based on 11 human studies) of mupR S. aureus in Africa was 14% (95% CI =6.8 to 23.2%). The proportion of mupA-positive S. aureus in Africa ranged between 0.5 and 8%. Furthermore, the frequency of S. aureus isolates that exhibited LmupR, HmupR and mupR-MRSA in Africa were 4 and 47%, 0.5 and 38%, 5 and 50%, respectively.

Conclusions: The prevalence of mupR S. aureus in Africa (14%) is worrisome and there is a need for data on administration and use of mupirocin. The disk diffusion method which is widely utilized in Africa could be an important method for the screening and identification of mupR S. aureus. Moreover, we advocate for surveillance studies with appropriate guidelines for screening mupR S. aureus in Africa.

Keywords: Africa; Meta-analysis; Mupirocin; Prevalence; Staphylococcus aureus; Systematic review.

Fig. 1

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis flow diagram

Fig. 2

Studies on screening for mupirocin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Africa

Fig. 3

Geographic distribution of mupirocin-resistant (mupR) Staphylococcus aureus in Africa. Countries (in green) in which mupR S. aureus have been investigated but not reported. Countries (in red) in which mupR S. aureus have been investigated and reported

Fig. 4

Bias assessment (Funnel) plot for studies assessing rates of mupirocin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Africa. Random effects (DerSimonian-Laird). Pooled proportion = 0.139303 (95% CI = 0.067511 to 0.23165). Bias indicators, Begg-Mazumdar: Kendall’s tau = 0.2 P = 0.4454, Egger: bias = 4.771137 (95% CI = −2.517874 to 12.060148) P = 0.1728, Harbord: bias = 2.014783 (92.5% CI = −5.90181 to 9.931377) P = 0.6208

Fig. 5

Pooled estimate of proportions (human studies) for mupirocin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Africa