Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2018 Dec;51(4):693-805.
doi: 10.1007/s10739-018-9538-7.

The Bermuda Triangle: The Pragmatics, Policies, and Principles for Data Sharing in the History of the Human Genome Project

Kathryn Maxson Jones  1   2 , Rachel A Ankeny  3 , Robert Cook-Deegan  4
Affiliations

The Bermuda Triangle: The Pragmatics, Policies, and Principles for Data Sharing in the History of the Human Genome Project

Kathryn Maxson Jones et al. J Hist Biol. 2018 Dec.

Abstract

The Bermuda Principles for DNA sequence data sharing are an enduring legacy of the Human Genome Project (HGP). They were adopted by the HGP at a strategy meeting in Bermuda in February of 1996 and implemented in formal policies by early 1998, mandating daily release of HGP-funded DNA sequences into the public domain. The idea of daily sharing, we argue, emanated directly from strategies for large, goal-directed molecular biology projects first tested within the "community" of C. elegans researchers, and were introduced and defended for the HGP by the nematode biologists John Sulston and Robert Waterston. In the C. elegans community, and subsequently in the HGP, daily sharing served the pragmatic goals of quality control and project coordination. Yet in the HGP human genome, we also argue, the Bermuda Principles addressed concerns about gene patents impeding scientific advancement, and were aspirational and flexible in implementation and justification. They endured as an archetype for how rapid data sharing could be realized and rationalized, and permitted adaptation to the needs of various scientific communities. Yet in addition to the support of Sulston and Waterston, their adoption also depended on the clout of administrators at the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the UK nonprofit charity the Wellcome Trust, which together funded 90% of the HGP human sequencing effort. The other nations wishing to remain in the HGP consortium had to accommodate to the Bermuda Principles, requiring exceptions from incompatible existing or pending data access policies for publicly funded research in Germany, Japan, and France. We begin this story in 1963, with the biologist Sydney Brenner's proposal for a nematode research program at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) at the University of Cambridge. We continue through 2003, with the completion of the HGP human reference genome, and conclude with observations about policy and the historiography of molecular biology.

Keywords: Bayh-Dole Act; Bermuda Principles; Big science; Bioinformatics; Biotechnology; C. elegans; Celera Genomics; Co-production; Community resource projects; DNA Databank of Japan (DDBJ); DNA sequencing; Data hoarding; Data release; Data sharing; Databases; Department of Energy (DOE); Ethical Legal and Social Implications (ELSI); European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI); GenBank; Gene patenting; Genetic mapping; Genetics; Genome commons; Genomics; Human Genome Project (HGP); Intellectual property; Medical genetics; Model organisms; Molecular biology; Moral economy of science; National Center for Human Genome Research (NCHGR); National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI); National Institutes of Health (NIH); Nematode worm; Open science; Patents; Physical mapping; Post-genomics; Public domain; Reference sequence; Science policy; Wellcome Trust.

PubMed Disclaimer

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Alan Coulson standing beside the physical map of the worm genome, nearly completed and displayed at the 1989 International C. elegans Meeting at CSHL. This material has been provided by the Wellcome Library where the originals may be consulted. Reproduced with Alan Coulson’s permission. “Photographs of CSHL Meeting, May 1989,” Alan Coulson Papers, PPCOU/B/1/11, License: CC-BY-NC. https://wellcomelibrary.org/item/b20268634#?m=0&cv=0&c=0&s=0&z=−0.0755%2C-0.0254%2C1.0001%2C0.8925
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Participants at the first Bermuda meeting, held at the Hamilton Princess Hotel in Bermuda, February 1996. Photograph courtesy of Richard Myers, HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, reproduced with his permission. Previously published in: Cook-Deegan et al. 2017, Figure 1. Also available from: http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7713
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
The first draft of the Bermuda Principles, as John Sulston wrote them on a white board in Bermuda in 1996. Photograph courtesy of Richard Myers, HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, reproduced with his permission. Previously published in: Sulston and Ferry (2002, Figure between pp. 150 and 151 and Cook-Deegan et al. (2017, Figure 2). Also available from: http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7721
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

    1. Adams interview 2012: Mark Adams, by KMJ and RC-D, by telephone, 1 February 2012.
    1. Ashburner interview 2011: Michael Ashburner, by KMJ and RC-D, Cambridge, UK, 2 Jul 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7690.
    1. Branscomb interview 2011: Elbert Branscomb, by KMJ and RC-D, by telephone, 17 Oct 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7693.
    1. Cameron interview 2012: Graham Cameron, by KMJ and RC-D, by telephone, 16 Mar 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7706.
    1. Caskey interview 2012: C. Thomas Caskey, by KMJ and RC-D, by telephone, 2 Mar 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7696.

Email Interviews and Other Electronic Correspondence

    1. BMBF to KMJ, 2012 and 2013. Andreas Weller, Frank Laplace, and Ursula Hurtenbach, on formal behalf of BMBF, by KMJ, 7 Nov 2012, and follow-up email, Weller to KMJ, 5 Jul 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7761.
    1. Contreras to authors 2017: Jorge Contreras, email communication to authors, 20 April 2017.
    1. Green to KMJ 2018: Phil Green, email communication to KMJ, 21 January 2018.
    1. Hattori to KMJ 2012: Masahira Hattori, email communication to KMJ, 26 Jul 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7708.
    1. Waterston to KMJ 2017: Robert Waterston, personal communication in the form of manuscript edits in a Microsoft Word document, on 15 February 2017.

Archival Sources: Bioethics Research Library, Kennedy Institute of Ethics, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.

    1. Cook-Deegan Archive: “The Robert Cook-Deegan Human Genome Archive,” containing the full scope of archival materials for Cook-Deegan’s The Gene Wars: Science, Politics, and the Human Genome (1994), created with partial support from the Duke University Center for Public Genomics (2004–2016), a Center of Excellence in ELSI Research co-funded by the NHGRI and the DOE (P50-HG-003391). https://bioethics.georgetown.edu/library-materials/digital-collections/r...

Clinton Digital Library, William J. Clinton Presidential Library and Museum, Little Rock, AR

    1. Lane 1999: Neal Lane, “Human Genome,” Memorandum for the President on the subject of “Genome Patenting,” 1 Oct 1999, Domestic Policy Council, Bruce Reed, and Subject Files. Clinton Presidential Records: White House Staff and Office Files. https://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/show/31391.
    1. Joint Statement on the Human Genome 2000: “Joint Statement on the Human Genome, Questions and Answers,” unpublished draft 8 Mar 2000, Heather Hurlburt Collection, Office of Speechwriting, Office of Communications, OA/Box Number 19909, Folder “Binder: Briefing Materials for MOS/MOT Event Access to Information on the Human Genome March 14, 2000,” Clinton Presidential Records: White House Staff and Office Files. https://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/items/show/32399.

The Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Library and Archives, Cold Spring Harbor, NY

    1. 4th International Strategy Meeting 1999: “4th International Strategy Meeting on Human Genome Sequencing, CSHL (19 May 1999),” facsimile from Jilly Steward (The Wellcome Trust) to James D. Watson, 30 Jul 1999, unpublished meeting summary Jul 1999, James D. Watson Collection, JDW/2/9/1/117. http://libgallery.cshl.edu/items/show/53724.
    1. CSHL International History 2009: “International History of the Human Genome Project: Catalog of Original Materials,” descriptive online catalog initiated by CSHL and The Wellcome Trust, 2009. http://genomelegacy.org/.
    1. Davies 2016: Kevin Davies, ed., The Human Genome Project: An Annotated & Interactive Scholarly Guide to the Project in the United States, e-book maintained by CSHL, 2016. https://libwiki.cshl.edu/confluence/display/HGP/Home;jsessionid=C69CC57F....
    1. Ferry 2009: Georgina Ferry, “John Sulston - Biography,” Cold Spring Harbor Oral History Collection, CSHL Digital Archives, 2009. http://library.cshl.edu/oralhistory/speaker/john-sulston/.
    1. MRC Review 1992: UK Medical Research Council, MRC Review of the UK Human Genome Mapping Project, Project Manager’s Report September 1992, James D. Watson Collection, JDW/2/9/2/16. http://libgallery.cshl.edu/items/show/53763.

The Duke University Libraries, DukeSpace Archival Collections, Center for Public Genomics Research Files, Landmark Genomics Technologies, Unpublished Manuscripts, Durham, NC

    1. Crossman and Rai 2005: Colin Crossman and Arti Rai, “A Brief History of BioPerl,” unpublished manuscript, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/11699.

The Duke University Libraries, DukeSpace Archival Collections, Center for Public Genomics Research Files, The Bermuda Principles, Research Email Correspondence, Durham, NC

    1. Collins to sequencers and data 2000: Francis S. Collins, Director of the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), email message to the Directors of all HGP sequencing centers, 25 May 2000, and corresponding aggregate funding data, unpublished, compiled by Kris Wetterstrand (NHGRI) and courtesy of NHGRI. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/12719.
    1. Waterston to authors Jan 2017: Robert Waterston, email communications to authors, 4 and 9 Jan 2017. https://hdl.handle.net/10161/16507.
    1. Waterston to authors Feb 2017: Robert Waterston, email communications to authors, 17 Feb 2017. https://hdl.handle.net/10161/16508.

The Duke University Libraries, DukeSpace Archival Collections, Center for Public Genomics Research Files, The Bermuda Principles, The Bermuda Meetings, Durham, NC

    1. 1995 French HGP Planning Report; 1996 French HGP Planning Report: Jean Marc Egly, CNRS Large Sequencing Committee, and Francis Galibert (Committee president), “Expert report on the creation of a sequencing facility,” unpublished manuscript, 1995; PDF also contains Monique Meugnier (on behalf of Jean Weissenbach), facsimile containing 1996 French HGP planning report to Gérard Tobelem, 15 Apr 1996; both courtesy of Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and Jean Weissenbach (Genoscope). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/handle/10161/7711.
    1. 1996 NIH Bermuda Meeting Report; Guyer to Collins 1996: A summary version of “Report of the International Strategy Meeting on Human Genome Sequencing held at the Princess Hotel, Southampton, Bermuda, on 25th–28th February 1996”; PDF also contains Mark Guyer, email to Francis Collins, 12 Mar 1996; both unpublished manuscripts, Feb–Mar 1996, obtained via Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request to the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), FOIA Case Number: 12-FOI-00224-NHGRI-39937. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7715.
    1. 1996 Bermuda Programme and Participants List: “International Strategy Meeting on Human Genome Sequencing, Revised Programme” (as opposed to 1996 Wellcome Trust Programme, below); and “Participants List,” unpublished manuscripts, Feb 1996, courtesy of Laura Rodriguez, National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI). http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7716.
    1. 1997 Bermuda Revised Delegates List; 1997 Bermuda Meeting Report: “SECOND INTERNATIONAL STRATEGY MEETING ON HUMAN GENOME SEQUENCING Revised Delegates List”; PDF also contains “CONFIDENTIAL Report of the Second International Strategy Meeting on Human Genome Sequencing held at the Hamilton Princess Hotel, Bermuda, on 27th February–2nd March 1997”; both unpublished manuscripts, Feb-Mar 1997, obtained via Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request to the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), FOIA Case Number: 11-FOI-00056-NHGRI-38310. http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7733.
    1. 1998 Bermuda Meeting Photographs: Photographs of the 1998 International Strategy Meeting on Human Genome Sequencing, courtesy of Eric Green, National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI). http://hdl.handle.net/10161/7746.

Archival and Digitized Materials, National Human Genome Research Institute Archive, National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Rockville, MD

    1. 1997 Meeting Report Summary: “Summary of the Second International Strategy Meeting on Human Genome Sequencing,” unpublished manuscript, Feb-Mar 1997, with handwritten annotations by Francis Collins, sent to Collins by facsimile from Jill Kent (Scientific Officer-Genetics, Wellcome Trust), 4 Apr 1997, 7108–31.
    1. Kent to Collins 1997: Jill Kent, email communication to Francis Collins, re: “Bermuda report 1,” including summary of Session II of 1997 Bermuda meeting, 4 Apr 1997, 7108–31.
    1. Rosenthal to Morgan 1997: André Rosenthal, email communication to Michael Morgan, 7 Mar 1997, 7108–31.
    1. Waterston to Collins 1997: Robert Waterston, email to Francis Collins, 9 Mar 1997, 7108–31.

Wellcome Collection, London, UK

    1. 1995 Interim NCHGR Policy: “Interim NCHGR Policy on Human Genomic DNA Sequence for Grants Under RFA HG-95–005,” later updated to “NHGRI Policy Regarding Intellectual Property of Human Genomic Sequence: Policy on Availability and Patenting of Human Genomic DNA Sequence Produced by NHGRI Pilot Projects (Funded Under RFA HG-95–005)” (listed under Websites), included in facsimile from Barbara Skene (Programme Manager-Genetics, Wellcome Trust) to John Sulston, 9 Apr 1996, John Sulston Archives and Manuscripts, PP/SUL/B/2/4/1/1, “International Strategy Meeting on Human Genome Sequencing File 3/3.”
    1. 1996 Bermuda Meeting Transcript: “First meeting of the ‘Bermuda Talks’ held over three days from the 25th to the 27th February 1996,” First international strategy meeting on human genome sequencing. Parts 1–12. Moving image and sound collections 1755AM (1–12) (transcript, Restricted).
    1. 1997 Bermuda Meeting Transcript: “Second meeting of the ‘Bermuda Talks’ held over three days from the 28th February to the 1st March 1997,” Second international strategy meeting on human genome sequencing. Parts 1–10. Moving image and sound collections 1756AM (transcript, Restricted).
    1. 1998 Bermuda Meeting Transcript: “Third and final meeting of the ‘Bermuda Talks’ held over three days from the 26th to 28th February 1998,” Third international strategy meeting on human genome sequencing. Parts 1–10. Moving image and sound collections 1757AM (1–10) (transcript, Restricted).
    1. 1996 NCHGR Pilot Study Press Release: “Pilot Study Explores Feasibility of Sequencing Human DNA,” included in facsimile from Robert Waterston to John Sulston, 11 Apr 1996, John Sulston Archives and Manuscripts, PP/SUL/B/2/4/1/1, “International Strategy Meeting on Human Genome Sequencing File 2/3.”

Websites

    1. “About JST” 2009. Japan Science and Technology Agency, https://www.jst.go.jp/EN/about/index.html, accessed 24 May 2018.
    1. “About Us” 2018. JGI Joint Genome Institute, A DOE Office of Science User Facility, https://jgi.doe.gov/about-us/, accessed 27 May 2018.
    1. Begley Sharon. 2017. “Psst, the human genome was never completely sequenced. Some scientists say it should be,” STAT News, https://www.statnews.com/2017/06/20/human-genome-not-fully-sequenced/, accessed 21 May 2018.
    1. “Bermuda Principles Foundation Fund” 2017. The Foundation Fund, https://www.bermudaprinciples.org/, accessed 3 Jun 2018.
    1. “Cancer Moonshot” 2017. National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, https://www.cancer.gov/research/key-initiatives/moonshot-cancer-initiative, accessed 23 May 2018.

Legal Cases, Legal Codes, and Public Policies

    1. Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc. 133 S. Ct. 2107 (June 13, 2013).
    1. D’Arcy v. Myriad Genetics, Inc. [2015] HCA 35 (7 Oct).
    1. Diamond v. Chakrabarty 447 U.S. 303 (1980).
    1. Univ. of Utah Res. Foundation et al. v. Ambry Genetics Corp. No. 2014–1361 (Fed. Cir. Dec. 17, 2014).
    1. 35 U.S.C. Patentability of Inventions and Grant of Patents. §§100–103.

Published Sources

    1. Anderson A 1992. Yeast Genome Project: 300,000 and Counting. Science 256 (5056): 462. - PubMed
    1. Abbate Janet. 1999. Inventing the Internet. Cambridge, MA and London, UK: MIT Press.
    1. Abbott Alison. 1997. Germany Rejects Genome Data “Isolation”. Nature 387 (6633): 536. - PubMed
    1. Adams MD, Celniker SE, Holt RA, Evans CA, Gocayne JD, Amanatides PG, Scherer SE, et al. 2000. The Genome Sequence of Drosophila melanogaster. Science 287 (5461): 2185–2195. - PubMed
    1. Adams MD, Dubnick M, Kerlavage AR, Moreno R, Kelley JM, Utterback TR, Nagle JW, et al. 1992. Sequence Identification of 2,375 Human Brain Genes. Nature 355 (6361): 632–634. - PubMed

Publication types

MeSH terms

LinkOut - more resources