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Review
. 2018 Nov 2;6(4):65.
doi: 10.3390/toxics6040065.

Heavy Metal Mixture Exposure and Effects in Developing Nations: An Update

Brilliance Onyinyechi Anyanwu  1 , Anthonet Ndidiamaka Ezejiofor  2 , Zelinjo Nkeiruka Igweze  3 , Orish Ebere Orisakwe  4
Affiliations
Review

Heavy Metal Mixture Exposure and Effects in Developing Nations: An Update

Brilliance Onyinyechi Anyanwu et al. Toxics. .

Abstract

The drive for development and modernization has come at great cost. Various human activities in developed and developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) have given rise to environmental safety concerns. Increased artisanal mining activities, illegal refining, use of leaded petrol, airborne dust, arbitrary discarding and burning of toxic waste, absorption of production industries in inhabited areas, inadequate environmental legislation, and weak implementation of policies, have given rise to the incomparable contamination and pollution associated with heavy metals in recent decades. This review evaluates the public health effects of heavy metals and their mixtures in SSA. This shows the extent and size of the problem posed by exposure to heavy metal mixtures in regard to public health.

Keywords: Sub-Saharan Africa; environmental pollution; epidemiology; heavy metal mixtures; public health effects.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Study selection flow diagram.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Conceptual framework of human exposure to heavy metal mixture from the environment.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Attack of heavy metals on a cell resulting in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Biotransformation of hepatotoxicants.
Figure 5
Figure 5
A conceptual framework of metal mixture effects on the kidney.
Figure 6
Figure 6
A conceptual framework of metal mixture exposure, mode of action, and disease outcome in the brain, the - sign indicates inhibition of cellular elements and the + sign rising apoptotic factors.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Five predominant cancers in both males (A) and females (B) living in Rivers State (Cancer in Nigeria, 2009–2013).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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