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Meta-Analysis
. 2019 Jan 9;1(1):CD001118.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD001118.pub4.

Print-based self-help interventions for smoking cessation

Jonathan Livingstone-Banks  1 , José M Ordóñez-Mena, Jamie Hartmann-Boyce
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Print-based self-help interventions for smoking cessation

Jonathan Livingstone-Banks et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Many smokers give up smoking on their own, but materials that provide a structured programme for smokers to follow may increase the number who quit successfully.

Objectives: The aims of this review were to determine the effectiveness of different forms of print-based self-help materials that provide a structured programme for smokers to follow, compared with no treatment and with other minimal contact strategies, and to determine the comparative effectiveness of different components and characteristics of print-based self-help, such as computer-generated feedback, additional materials, tailoring of materials to individuals, and targeting of materials at specific groups.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group Trials Register, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP). The date of the most recent search was March 2018.

Selection criteria: We included randomised trials of smoking cessation with follow-up of at least six months, where at least one arm tested print-based materials providing self-help compared with minimal print-based self-help (such as a short leaflet) or a lower-intensity control. We defined 'self-help' as structured programming for smokers trying to quit without intensive contact with a therapist.

Data collection and analysis: We extracted data in accordance with standard methodological procedures set out by Cochrane. The main outcome measure was abstinence from smoking after at least six months' follow-up in people smoking at baseline. We used the most rigorous definition of abstinence in each study and biochemically validated rates when available. Where appropriate, we performed meta-analysis using a random-effects model.

Main results: We identified 75 studies that met our inclusion criteria. Many study reports did not include sufficient detail to allow judgement of risk of bias for some domains. We judged 30 studies (40%) to be at high risk of bias for one or more domains.Thirty-five studies evaluated the effects of standard, non-tailored self-help materials. Eleven studies compared self-help materials alone with no intervention and found a small effect in favour of the intervention (n = 13,241; risk ratio (RR) 1.19, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.03 to 1.37; I² = 0%). We judged the evidence to be of moderate certainty in accordance with GRADE, downgraded for indirect relevance to populations in low- and middle-income countries because evidence for this comparison came from studies conducted solely in high-income countries and there is reason to believe the intervention might work differently in low- and middle-income countries. This analysis excluded two studies by the same author team with strongly positive outcomes that were clear outliers and introduced significant heterogeneity. Six further studies of structured self-help compared with brief leaflets did not show evidence of an effect of self-help materials on smoking cessation (n = 7023; RR 0.87, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.07; I² = 21%). We found evidence of benefit from standard self-help materials when there was brief contact that did not include smoking cessation advice (4 studies; n = 2822; RR 1.39, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.88; I² = 0%), but not when self-help was provided as an adjunct to face-to-face smoking cessation advice for all participants (11 studies; n = 5365; RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.76 to 1.28; I² = 32%).Thirty-two studies tested materials tailored for the characteristics of individual smokers, with controls receiving no materials, or stage-matched or non-tailored materials. Most of these studies used more than one mailing. Pooling studies that compared tailored self-help with no self-help, either on its own or compared with advice, or as an adjunct to advice, showed a benefit of providing tailored self-help interventions (12 studies; n = 19,190; RR 1.34, 95% CI 1.20 to 1.49; I² = 0%) with little evidence of difference between subgroups (10 studies compared tailored with no materials, n = 14,359; RR 1.34, 95% CI 1.19 to 1.51; I² = 0%; two studies compared tailored materials with brief advice, n = 2992; RR 1.13, 95% CI 0.86 to 1.49; I² = 0%; and two studies evaluated tailored materials as an adjunct to brief advice, n = 1839; RR 1.72, 95% CI 1.17 to 2.53; I² = 10%). When studies compared tailored self-help with non-tailored self-help, results favoured tailored interventions when the tailored interventions involved more mailings than the non-tailored interventions (9 studies; n = 14,166; RR 1.42, 95% CI 1.20 to 1.68; I² = 0%), but not when the two conditions were contact-matched (10 studies; n = 11,024; RR 1.07, 95% CI 0.89 to 1.30; I² = 50%). We judged the evidence to be of moderate certainty in accordance with GRADE, downgraded for risk of bias.Five studies evaluated self-help materials as an adjunct to nicotine replacement therapy; pooling three of these provided no evidence of additional benefit (n = 1769; RR 1.05, 95% CI 0.86 to 1.30; I² = 0%). Four studies evaluating additional written materials favoured the intervention, but the lower confidence interval crossed the line of no effect (RR 1.20, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.58; I² = 73%). A small number of other studies did not detect benefit from using targeted materials, or find differences between different self-help programmes.

Authors' conclusions: Moderate-certainty evidence shows that when no other support is available, written self-help materials help more people to stop smoking than no intervention. When people receive advice from a health professional or are using nicotine replacement therapy, there is no evidence that self-help materials add to their effect. However, small benefits cannot be excluded. Moderate-certainty evidence shows that self-help materials that use data from participants to tailor the nature of the advice or support given are more effective than no intervention. However, when tailored self-help materials, which typically involve repeated assessment and mailing, were compared with untailored materials delivered similarly, there was no evidence of benefit.Available evidence tested self-help interventions in high-income countries, where more intensive support is often available. Further research is needed to investigate effects of these interventions in low- and middle-income countries, where more intensive support may not be available.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

JLB: none known.

JMOM: none known.

JHB: none known.

Figures

1
1
Flow diagram for 2018 update.
2
2
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
3
3
Forest plot of comparison: 2 Self‐help vs no self‐help, pooling all studies, outcome: 2.1 Long‐term abstinence.
4
4
Tailored self‐help materials: Long‐term abstinence.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

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Prochaska 2001b {published data only}
    1. Prochaska JO, Velicer WF, Fava JL, Rossi JS, Tsoh JY. Evaluating a population‐based recruitment approach and a stage‐based expert system intervention for smoking cessation. Addictive Behaviors 2001;26:583‐602. - PubMed
    1. Velicer WF, Redding CA, Sun X, Prochaska JO. Demographic variables, smoking variables, and outcome across five studies. Health Psychology 2007;26(3):278‐87. - PubMed
Prochaska 2004 {published data only}
    1. Prochaska JO, Velicer WF, Rossi JS, Redding CA, Greene GW, Rossi SR, et al. Multiple risk expert systems interventions: impact of simultaneous stage‐matched expert system interventions for smoking, high‐fat diet, and sun exposure in a population of parents. Health Psychology 2004;23:503‐16. - PubMed
Prochaska 2005 {published data only}
    1. Prochaska JO, Velicer WF, Redding C, Rossi JS, Goldstein M, DePue J, et al. Stage‐based expert systems to guide a population of primary care patients to quit smoking, eat healthier, prevent skin cancer, and receive regular mammograms. Preventive Medicine 2005;41:406‐16. - PubMed
Prue 1983 {published data only}
    1. Prue DM, Davis CJ, Martin JE, Moss RA. An investigation of a minimal contact brand fading program for smoking treatment. Addictive Behaviors 1983;8:307‐10. - PubMed
Resnicow 1997 {published data only}
    1. Resnicow K, Royce J, Vaughan R, Orlandi MA, Smith M. Analysis of a multicomponent smoking cessation project: what worked and why. Preventive Medicine 1997;26:373‐81. - PubMed
    1. Resnicow K, Vaughan R, Futterman R, Weston RE, Royce J, Parms C, et al. A self‐help smoking cessation program for inner‐city African Americans: results from the Harlem health connection project. Health Education & Behavior 1997;24:201‐17. - PubMed
Rice 1994 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Rice VH, Fox DH, Lepczyk M, Sieggreen M, Mullin M, Jarosz P, et al. A comparison of nursing interventions for smoking cessation in adults with cardiovascular health problems. Heart & Lung 1994;23:473‐86. - PubMed
Schofield 1999 {published data only}
    1. Schofield PE, Hill DJ, Johnston CI, Streeton JA. The effectiveness of a directly mailed smoking cessation intervention to Australian discharged hospital patients. Preventive Medicine 1999;29(6 Pt 1):527‐34. - PubMed
Schumann 2008 {published data only}
    1. Schumann A, John U, Baumeister SE, Ulbricht S, Rumpf HJ, Meyer C. Computer‐tailored smoking cessation intervention in a general population setting in Germany: outcome of a randomized controlled trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2008;10:371‐9. - PubMed
    1. Schumann A, John U, Rumpf HJ, Hapke U, Meyer C. Changes in the 'stages of change' as outcome measures of a smoking cessation intervention: a randomized controlled trial. Preventive Medicine 2006;43(2):101‐6. - PubMed
    1. Schumann A, John U, Ulbricht S, Ruge J, Bischof G, Meyer C. Computer‐generated tailored feedback letters for smoking cessation: theoretical and empirical variability of tailoring. International Journal of Medical Informatics 2008;77(11):715‐22. - PubMed
    1. Schumann A, John U, Ulbricht S, Ruge J, Bischof G, Meyer C. Variability of tailoring of a smoking cessation intervention based on the transtheoretical model. Addictive Behaviors 2007;32(12):3083‐7. - PubMed
Smith 2004 {published data only}
    1. Smith PM, Cameron R, McDonald PW, Kawash B, Madill C, Brown KS. Telephone counseling for population‐based smoking cessation. American Journal of Health Behavior 2004;28(3):231‐41. - PubMed
Strecher 2005 {published data only}
    1. Strecher VJ, Marcus A, Bishop K, Fleisher L, Stengle W, Levinson A, et al. A randomized controlled trial of multiple tailored messages for smoking cessation among callers to the cancer information service. Journal of Health Communication 2005;10 Suppl 1:105‐18. - PubMed
Sutton 2007 {published data only}
    1. Gilbert H, Sutton S. Does adding tailored feedback to telephone counselling improve quit rates? (POS1‐033). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 10th Annual Meeting February 18‐21, Phoenix, Arizona. 2004:43.
    1. Sutton S, Gilbert H. Effectiveness of individually tailored smoking cessation advice letters as an adjunct to telephone counselling and generic self‐help materials: randomized controlled trial. Addiction 2007;102(6):994‐1000. - PubMed
Sykes 2001 {published data only}
    1. Marks DF, Sykes CM. Randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavioural therapy for smokers living in a deprived area of London: outcome at one‐year follow‐up. Psychology, Health and Medicine 2002;7:17‐24.
    1. Sykes CM, Marks DF. Effectiveness of a cognitive behaviour therapy self‐help programme for smokers in London, UK. Health Promotion International 2001;16:255‐60. - PubMed
Thompson 1988 {published data only}
    1. Thompson RS, Michnich ME, Friedlander L, Gilson B, Grothaus LC, Storer B. Effectiveness of smoking cessation interventions integrated into primary care practice. Medical Care 1988;26:62‐76. - PubMed
van der Aalst 2012 {published data only}
    1. Aalst CM, Koning HJ, Bergh KA, Willemsen MC, Klaveren RJ. The effectiveness of a computer‐tailored smoking cessation intervention for participants in lung cancer screening: a randomised controlled trial. Lung Cancer (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 2012;76(2):204‐10. [CENTRAL: 830557; CRS: 9400123000012567; EMBASE: 2012198268; PUBMED: 22054915] - PubMed
Velicer 1999 {published data only}
    1. Velicer WF, Prochaska JO. An expert system intervention for smoking cessation. Patient Education & Counseling 1999;36:119‐29. - PubMed
    1. Velicer WF, Prochaska JO, Fava JL, Laforge RG, Rossi JS. Interactive versus noninteractive interventions and dose‐response relationships for stage‐matched smoking cessation programs in a managed care setting. Health Psychology 1999;18(1):21‐8. - PubMed
Velicer 2006 {published data only}
    1. Velicer WF, Friedman RH, Fava JL, Gulliver SB, Keller S, Sun X, et al. Evaluating nicotine replacement therapy and stage‐based therapies in a population‐based effectiveness trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2006;74(6):1162‐72. - PubMed
Webb 2013 {published data only}
    1. Webb Hooper M, Rodriguez De Ybarra D, Baker EA. The effect of placebo tailoring on smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2013;81(5):800‐9. [CENTRAL: 875034; CRS: 9400126000000237; EMBASE: 2013603080; PUBMED: 23544680] - PubMed
Willemsen 2006 {published data only}
    1. Willemsen MC, Wiebing M, Emst A, Zeeman G. Helping smokers to decide on the use of efficacious smoking cessation methods: a randomized controlled trial of a decision aid. Addiction 2006;101(3):441‐9. - PubMed
    1. Willemsen MC, Wiebing MA, Ernst AJ, Zeeman G. A self‐help quit kit to motivate smokers to undergo treatment: a randomised controlled trial. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 11th Annual Meeting. 20‐23 March 2005; Prague, Czech Republic. 2005.

References to studies excluded from this review

Ainsworth 2013 {published data only}
    1. Ainsworth H, Shah S, Ahmed F, Amos A, Cameron I, Fairhurst C, et al. Muslim communities learning about second‐hand smoke (MCLASS): study protocol for a pilot cluster randomised controlled trial. Trials 2013;14:295. - PMC - PubMed
Armitage 2008a {published data only}
    1. Armitage CJ, Arden MA. How useful are the stages of change for targeting interventions? Randomized test of a brief intervention to reduce smoking. Health Psychology 2008;27(6):789‐98. [CENTRAL: 754030; CRS: 9400123000005686; EMBASE: 2008603965] - PubMed
Armitage 2008b {published data only}
    1. Armitage CJ. A volitional help sheet to encourage smoking cessation: a randomized exploratory trial. Health Psychology 2008;27:557‐66. - PubMed
Arnold 2009 {published data only}
    1. Arnold J, Goodacre S, Bath P, Price J. Information sheets for patients with acute chest pain: randomised controlled trial. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 2009;338:b541. [CENTRAL: 682280; CRS: 9400123000005097; EMBASE: 2009155221; PUBMED: 19246544] - PMC - PubMed
Balanda 1999 {published data only}
    1. Balanda KP, Lowe JB, OConnor Fleming ML. Comparison of two self‐help smoking cessation booklets. Tobacco Control 1999;8:57‐61. - PMC - PubMed
Bansal‐Travers 2010 {published data only}
    1. Bansal‐Travers M, Cummings KM, Hyland A, Brown A, Celestino P. Educating smokers about their cigarettes and nicotine medications. Health Education Research 2010;25(4):678‐86. [CENTRAL: 759258; CRS: 9400123000005725; PUBMED: 20064838] - PMC - PubMed
Barnett 2015 {published data only}
    1. Barnett PG, Wong W, Jeffers A, Hall SM, Prochaska JJ. Cost‐effectiveness of smoking cessation treatment initiated during psychiatric hospitalization: analysis from a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2015;76(10):e1285‐91. - PMC - PubMed
Brandon 2000 {published data only}
    1. Brandon TH, Collins BN, Juliano LM, Lazev AB. Preventing relapse among former smokers: a comparison of minimal interventions through telephone and mail. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2000;68:103‐13. - PubMed
Brandon 2004 {published data only}
    1. Brandon TH, Meade CD, Herzog TA, Chirikos TN, Webb MS, Cantor AB. Efficacy and cost‐effectiveness of a minimal intervention to prevent smoking relapse: dismantling the effects of amount of content versus contact. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2004;72(5):797‐808. - PubMed
Brandon 2012 {published data only}
    1. Brandon TH, Simmons VN, Meade CD, Quinn GP, Lopez Khoury EN, Sutton SK, et al. Self‐help booklets for preventing postpartum smoking relapse: a randomized trial. American Journal of Public Health 2012;102(11):2109‐15. [CENTRAL: 867762; CRS: 9400123000017587; EMBASE: 22994170; PUBMED: 22994170] - PMC - PubMed
Brown 1992 {published data only}
    1. Brown S, Hunt G, Owen N. The effect of adding telephone contact to self‐instructional smoking‐cessation materials. Behavior Change 1992;9:216‐22.
Burling 2000 {published data only}
    1. Burling AS, Burling TA. A work in progress: effectiveness of a comprehensive internet‐delivered interactive multimedia stop smoking program. Presented at the 34th Annual Convention of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, New Orleans, LA, November 2000.
Carré 2008 {published data only}
    1. Carré PC, Roche N, Neukirch F, Radeau T, Perez T, Terrioux P, et al. The effect of an information leaflet upon knowledge and awareness of COPD in potential sufferers. A randomized controlled study. Respiration; International Review of Thoracic Diseases 2008;76(1):53‐60. [CENTRAL: 647637; CRS: 9400123000004868; PUBMED: 18253024] - PubMed
Conway 2004 {published data only}
    1. Conway TL, Woodruff SI, Edwards CC, Elder JP, Hurtado SL, Hervig LK. Operation Stay Quit: evaluation of two smoking relapse prevention strategies for women after involuntary cessation during US Navy recruit training. Military Medicine 2004;169(3):236‐42. - PubMed
Curry 1988 {published data only}
    1. Curry SJ, Marlatt GA, Gordon J, Baer JS. A comparison of alternative theoretical approaches to smoking cessation and relapse. Health Psychology 1988;7:545‐56. - PubMed
Dijkstra 1998b {published data only}
    1. Dijkstra A, Vries H, Roijackers J, Breukelen G. Tailoring information to enhance quitting in smokers with low motivation to quit: three basic efficacy questions. Health Psychology 1998;17:513‐9. - PubMed
Dijkstra 2001 {published data only}
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Dijkstra 2005 {published data only}
    1. Dijkstra A. Working mechanisms of computer‐tailored health education: evidence from smoking cessation. Health Education Research 2005;20(5):527‐39. - PubMed
Dijkstra 2006 {published data only}
    1. Dijkstra A, Conijn B, Vries H. A field experiment on stages of change for smoking cessation: the effects of matched and mismatched information. Psychologie & Gezondheid 2007;35(1):5‐16.
    1. Dijkstra A, Conijn B, Vries H. A match‐mismatch test of a stage model of behaviour change in tobacco smoking. Addiction 2006;101(7):1035‐43. - PubMed
Dijkstra 2009 {published data only}
    1. Dijkstra A. Disengagement beliefs in smokers: do they influence the effects of a tailored persuasive message advocating smoking cessation?. Psychology & Health 2009;24(7):791‐804. [CENTRAL: 752163; CRS: 9400123000005663; PUBMED: 20205027] - PubMed
Edwards 1999 {published data only}
    1. Edwards CC, Woodruff SI, Conway TL. Operation Stay Quit: preventing smoking relapse among US Navy women. American Journal of Health Behavior 1999;23:352‐5.
Emmons 2013 {published data only}
    1. Emmons KM, Puleo E, Sprunck‐Harrild K, Ford J, Ostroff JS, Hodgson D, et al. Partnership for health‐2, a web‐based versus print smoking cessation intervention for childhood and young adult cancer survivors: randomized comparative effectiveness study. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2013;15(11):e218. [CRS: 9400126000000377; PUBMED: 24195867] - PMC - PubMed
Etter 2007 {published data only}
    1. Etter JF. Informing smokers on additives in cigarettes: a randomized trial. Patient Education & Counseling 2007;66(2):188‐91. - PubMed
Fortmann 1995 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Fortmann SP, Killen JD. Nicotine gum and self‐help behavioral treatment for smoking relapse prevention ‐ resuIts from a trial using population‐based recruitment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1995;63:460‐8. - PubMed
Garcia 2000 {published data only}
    1. Garcia MP, Becona E. Evaluation of the amount of therapist contact in a smoking cessation program. Spanish Journal of Psychology 2000;3(1):28‐36. - PubMed
Gritz 1988 {published data only}
    1. Gritz ER, Marcus AC, Berman BA, Read LL, Kanim LEA, Reeder SJ. Evaluation of a worksite self‐help smoking cessation program for registered nurses. American Journal of Health Promotion 1988;3(2):26‐35. - PubMed
Hall 2003 {published data only}
    1. Hall S, Bishop AJ, Marteau TM. Increasing readiness to stop smoking in women undergoing cervical screening: evaluation of two leaflets. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2003;5(6):821‐6. - PubMed
    1. Marteau TM, Hall S. Motivating smoking cessation in women undergoing cervical screening: evaluation of two leaflets. International Journal of Cancer 2002;Suppl 13:469.
Jeffery 1982 {published data only}
    1. Jeffery RW, Danaher BG, Killen J, Farquhar JW, Kinnier R. Self‐administered programs for health behavior change: smoking cessation and weight reduction by mail. Addictive Behaviors 1982;7:57‐63. - PubMed
Jeffery 1990 {published data only}
    1. Jeffery RW, Hellerstedt WL, Schmid TL. Correspondence programs for smoking cessation and weight control: a comparison of two strategies in the Minnesota Heart Health Program. Health Psychology 1990;9:585‐98. - PubMed
Johs 2003 {published data only}
    1. Johs Artisensi JL. The effect of web‐based support as an adjunct to a self‐help smoking cessation program. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2003;63(9‐B):4138.
Jordan 1999 {published data only}
    1. Jordan JC, Reynolds RV, Myers DL, Tobin TL, Jones JR, Hall LK, et al. Comparison of internet delivered and printed self‐help smoking cessation programs with hospital employees. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco Fifth Annual Meeting March 5‐7 San Diego CA. 1999.
Killen 1990 {published data only}
    1. Fortmann SP, Killen JD, Telch MJ, Newman B. Minimal contact treatment for smoking cessation. A placebo controlled trial of nicotine polacrilex and self‐directed relapse prevention: initial results of the Stanford Stop Smoking Project. JAMA 1988;260:1575‐80. - PubMed
    1. Killen JD, Fortmann SP, Newman B, Varady A. Evaluation of a treatment approach combining nicotine gum with self‐guided behavioral treatments for smoking relapse prevention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1990;58:85‐92. - PubMed
Kreuter 1996 {published data only}
    1. Kreuter MW, Strecher VJ. Do tailored behavior change messages enhance the effectiveness of health risk appraisal? Results from a randomized trial. Health Education Research 1996;11:97‐105. - PubMed
Kreuter 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kreuter MW, Eddens KS, Alcaraz KI, Rath S, Lai C, Caito N, et al. Use of cancer control referrals by 2‐1‐1 callers: a randomized trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2012;43(6 Suppl 5):S425‐34. [CRS: 9400107000000806; PEER: Reviewed Journal: 2012‐31259‐006] - PMC - PubMed
Lenert 2004 {published data only}
    1. Lenert L, Munoz RF, Perez JE, Bansod A. Automated e‐mail messaging as a tool for improving quit rates in an internet smoking cessation intervention. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 2004;11(4):235‐40. - PMC - PubMed
Lipkus 2004 {published data only}
    1. Lipkus IM, McBride CM, Pollak KI, Schwartz‐Bloom RD, Tilson E, Bloom PN. A randomized trial comparing the effects of self‐help materials and proactive telephone counseling on teen smoking cessation. Health Psychology 2004;23(4):397‐406. - PubMed
McBride 1999 {published data only}
    1. McBride CM, Scholes D, Grothaus LC, Curry SJ, Ludman E, Albright J. Evaluation of a minimal self‐help smoking cessation intervention following cervical cancer screening. Preventive Medicine 1999;29(2):133‐8. - PubMed
McDonald 2003 {published data only}
    1. McDonald PW, Jessup L, Stephen Brown K, Ahmed R, Filsinger S. Are cessation interventions based on stage of change really more effective? (POS4‐27). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 9th Annual Meeting February 19‐22 New Orleans, Louisiana. 2003.
McDonnell 2011 {published data only}
    1. McDonnell DD, Kazinets G, Lee HJ, Moskowitz JM. An internet‐based smoking cessation program for Korean Americans: results from a randomized controlled trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2011;13(5):336‐43. [CENTRAL: 831359; CRS: 9400123000011568; 135; PUBMED: 21330285] - PubMed
    1. McDonnell DD, Lee HJ, Kazinets G, Moskowitz JM. Online recruitment of targeted populations: lessons learned from a smoking cessation study among Korean Americans. Social Marketing Quarterly 2010;16(3):2‐22. [CENTRAL: 794867; CRS: 9400123000006106]
McMahon 2000 {published data only}
    1. McMahon SD, Jason LA. Social support in a worksite smoking intervention. A test of theoretical models. Behavior Modification 2000;24:184‐201. - PubMed
Meade 1989 {published data only}
    1. Meade CD, Byrd JC, Lee M. Improving patient comprehension of literature on smoking. American Journal of Public Health 1989;79(10):1411‐2. - PMC - PubMed
Moore 2002 {published data only}
    1. Moore L, Campbell R, Whelan A, Mills N, Lupton P, Misselbrook E, et al. Self help smoking cessation in pregnancy: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2002;325(7377):1383. - PMC - PubMed
Murphy 2005 {published data only}
    1. Murphy JM, Mahoney MC, Cummings KM, Hyland AJ, Lawvere S. A randomized trial to promote pharmacotherapy use and smoking cessation in a Medicaid population (United States). Cancer Causes and Control 2005;16(4):373‐82. - PubMed
Naughton 2012 {published data only}
    1. Naughton F, Prevost AT, Gilbert H, Sutton S. Randomized controlled trial evaluation of a tailored leaflet and SMS text message self‐help intervention for pregnant smokers (MiQuit). Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2012;14(5):569‐77. [CENTRAL: 832524; CRS: 9400123000014482; EMBASE: 2012254938; 334; PUBMED: 22311960] - PubMed
NCT00714467 {published data only}
    1. NCT00714467. Expert system and family assisted interventions for chinese smokers. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT00714467 2004.
NCT01566994 {published data only}
    1. NCT01566994. Comparing population cessation services. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT01566994 2010.
O'Hara 1993 {published data only}
    1. O'Hara P, Gerace TA, Elliott LL. Effectiveness of self‐help smoking cessation guides for firefighters. Journal of Occupational Medicine 1993;35:795‐9. - PubMed
Ossip‐Klein 1991 {published data only}
    1. Ossip Klein DJ, Giovino GA, Megahed N, Black PM, Emont SL, Stiggins J, et al. Effects of a smoker's hotline: results of a 10‐county self‐help trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1991;59:325‐32. - PubMed
Ossip‐Klein 1997 {published data only}
    1. Ossip Klein DJ, Carosella AM, Krusch DA. Self‐help interventions for older smokers. Tobacco Control 1997;6(3):188‐93. - PMC - PubMed
Pallonen 1998 {published data only}
    1. Pallonen UE, Velicer WF, Prochaska JO, Rossi JS, Bellis JM, Tsoh JY, et al. Computer‐based smoking cessation interventions in adolescents: description, feasibility, and six‐month follow‐up findings. Substance Use and Misuse 1998;33(4):935‐65. - PubMed
Pederson 1981 {published data only}
    1. Pederson LL, Baldwin N, Lefcoe NM. Utility of behavioral self‐help manuals in a minimal‐contact smoking cessation program. International Journal of Addiction 1981;16:1233‐9. - PubMed
Rimer 1994 {published data only}
    1. Rimer BK, Orleans CT. Tailoring smoking cessation for older adults. Cancer 1994;74(7 Suppl):2051‐4. - PubMed
    1. Rimer BK, Orleans CT, Fleisher L, Cristinzio S. Does tailoring matter? The impact of a tailored guide on ratings and short‐term smoking‐related outcomes for older smokers. Health Education Research 1994;9:69‐84. - PubMed
Russell 1979 {published data only}
    1. Russell MAH, Wilson C, Taylor C, Baker CD. Effect of general practitioners' advice against smoking. British Medical Journal 1979;2:231‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Sallis 1986 {published data only}
    1. Sallis JF, Hill RD, Killen JD, Telch MJ, Flora JA, Girard J, et al. Efficacy of self‐help behavior modification materials in smoking cessation. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1986;2:342‐4. - PubMed
Senesael 2013 {published data only}
    1. Senesael E, Borgermans L, Vijver E, Devroey D. Effectiveness of a quality improvement intervention targeting cardiovascular risk factors: are patients responsive to information and encouragement by mail or post?. Vascular Health and Risk Management 2013;9:13‐20. [CENTRAL: 862212; CRS: 9400107000001662; PUBMED: 23426275] - PMC - PubMed
Shi 2013 {published data only}
    1. Shi HJ, Jiang XX, Yu CY, Zhang Y. Use of mobile phone text messaging to deliver an individualized smoking behaviour intervention in Chinese adolescents. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare 2013;19(5):282‐7. [CRS: 9400126000000380; PUBMED: 24163238] - PubMed
Shiffman 2000 {unpublished data only}
    1. Shiffman S, Gitchell J, Strecher V, et al. Real‐world efficacy of computer‐tailored smoking cessation material as a supplement to nicotine replacement [Abstract]. 10th World Congress on Smoking or Health, Beijing, China, August. 1997.
    1. Shiffman S, Paty JA, Rohay JM, Dimarino ME, Gitchell J. The efficacy of computer‐tailored smoking cessation material as a supplement to nicotine polacrilex gum therapy. Archives of Internal Medicine 2000;160:1675‐81. - PubMed
Shiffman 2001 {unpublished data only}
    1. Shiffman S, Paty J, Rohay J, Marino M, Strecher V. The efficacy of computer‐tailored smoking cessation material as a supplement to nicotine patch therapy. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco; 1998 August; Copenhagen, Denmark.
    1. Shiffman S, Paty JA, Rohay JM, Marino ME, Gitchell JG. The efficacy of computer‐tailored smoking cessation material as a supplement to nicotine patch therapy. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2001;64(1):35‐46. - PubMed
Sims 2013 {published data only}
    1. Sims TH, McAfee T, Fraser DL, Baker TB, Fiore MC, Smith SS. Quitline cessation counseling for young adult smokers: a randomized clinical trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2013;15(5):932‐41. [CRS: 9400123000018624; EMBASE: 2013286046] - PMC - PubMed
Song 2012 {published data only}
    1. Blyth A, Maskrey V, Notley C, Barton GR, Brown TJ, Aveyard P, et al. Effectiveness and economic evaluation of self‐help educational materials for the prevention of smoking relapse: randomised controlled trial. Health Technology Assessment 2015;19(59):1‐70. [CNO: CN‐01170619] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Song F, Holland R, Barton GR, Bachmann M, Blyth A, Maskrey V, et al. Self‐help materials for the prevention of smoking relapse: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2012;13:69. [CENTRAL: 855130; CRS: 9400123000017475; EMBASE: 2012625152; 316; PUBMED: 22647290] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Song F, Maskrey V, Blyth A, Brown TJ, Barton GR, Aveyard P, et al. Differences in longer‐term smoking abstinence after treatment by specialist or nonspecialist advisors: secondary analysis of data from a relapse prevention trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2016;18(5):1061‐6. [CNO: CN‐01215184] - PMC - PubMed
Stanczyk 2013 {published data only}
    1. Stanczyk NE, Crutzen R, Bolman C, Muris J, Vries H. Influence of delivery strategy on message‐processing mechanisms and future adherence to a Dutch computer‐tailored smoking cessation intervention. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2013;15(2):e28. [CENTRAL: 873085; CRS: 9400107000001436; PEER: Reviewed Journal: 2013‐26866‐003; PUBMED: 23388554] - PMC - PubMed
Strecher 1994 {published data only}
    1. Strecher VJ, Kreuter M, Boer DJ, Kobrin S, Hospers HJ, Skinner CS. The effects of computer‐tailored smoking cessation messages in family practice settings. Journal of Family Practice 1994;39:262‐70. - PubMed
Strecher 2000 {published data only}
    1. Strecher VJ, Bishop KR, Bernhardt J, Thorp JM, Cheuvront B, Potts P. Quit for keeps: tailored smoking cessation guides for pregnancy and beyond. Tobacco Control 2000;9 Suppl 3:78‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Strecher 2005b {published data only}
    1. Strecher VJ, Shiffman S, West R. Randomized controlled trial of a web‐based computer‐tailored smoking cessation program as a supplement to nicotine patch therapy. Addiction 2005;100:682‐8. - PubMed
Strecher 2008 {published data only}
    1. Strecher VJ, McClure JB, Alexander GL, Chakraborty B, Nair VN, Konkel JM, et al. Web‐based smoking‐cessation programs: results of a randomized trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2008;34(5):373‐81. - PMC - PubMed
Te Poel 2009 {published data only}
    1. Poel F, Bolman C, Reubsaet A, Vries H. Efficacy of a single computer‐tailored e‐mail for smoking cessation: results after 6 months. Health Education Research 2009;24(6):930‐40. [CENTRAL: 733113; CRS: 9400123000005498; PUBMED: 19574405] - PubMed
Travis 2004 {published data only}
    1. Travis HE, Lawrance K. Effectiveness of self‐help smoking cessation interventions for college smokers: a randomized controlled trial (POS2‐032). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 10th Annual Meeting February 18‐21, Phoenix, Arizona. 2004.
Travis 2009 {published data only}
    1. Travis HE, Lawrance KA. Randomized controlled trial examining the effectiveness of a tailored self‐help smoking‐cessation intervention for postsecondary smokers. Journal of American College Health 2009;57(4):437‐44. [CENTRAL: 683030; CRS: 9400123000005106; PUBMED: 19114383] - PubMed
Ussher 2011 {published data only}
    1. Ussher M, Chambers M, Adams R, Croghan E, Murray R. Evaluation of a nationally disseminated self‐help intervention for smoking cessation ('Quit Kit'). Tobacco Control 2011;20(5):380‐2. [CRS: 9400123000012921; EMBASE: 21415063; 31695] - PubMed
Webb 2005 {published data only}
    1. Webb MS, Simmons VN, Brandon TH. Tailored interventions for motivating smoking cessation: using placebo tailoring to examine the influence of expectancies and personalization. Health Psychology 2005;24(2):179‐88. - PubMed
Webb 2007 {published data only}
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Webb 2008 {published data only}
    1. Webb MS. Does one size fit all African American smokers? The moderating role of acculturation in culturally specific interventions. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 2008;22(4):592‐6. [CENTRAL: 665144; CRS: 9400123000004966; PUBMED: 19071987] - PubMed
Webb 2009 {published data only}
    1. Webb MS. Culturally specific interventions for African American smokers: an efficacy experiment. Journal of the National Medical Association 2009;101(9):927‐35. [CENTRAL: 749773; CRS: 9400123000005621; EMBASE: 2009543758; PUBMED: 19806851] - PubMed
Webb 2010 {published data only}
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Weissfeld 1991 {published data only}
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Campos 2014 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
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References to ongoing studies

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