Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Meta-Analysis
. 2019 Jan 28;1(1):CD008940.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008940.pub3.

Pharmacotherapies for cannabis dependence

Suzanne Nielsen  1 , Linda Gowing, Pamela Sabioni, Bernard Le Foll
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Pharmacotherapies for cannabis dependence

Suzanne Nielsen et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Globally, cannabis use is prevalent and widespread. There are currently no pharmacotherapies approved for treatment of cannabis use disorders.This is an update of a Cochrane Review first published in the Cochrane Library in Issue 12, 2014.

Objectives: To assess the effectiveness and safety of pharmacotherapies as compared with each other, placebo or no pharmacotherapy (supportive care) for reducing symptoms of cannabis withdrawal and promoting cessation or reduction of cannabis use.

Search methods: We updated our searches of the following databases to March 2018: the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO and Web of Science.

Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs involving the use of medications to treat cannabis withdrawal or to promote cessation or reduction of cannabis use, or both, in comparison with other medications, placebo or no medication (supportive care) in people diagnosed as cannabis dependent or who were likely to be dependent.

Data collection and analysis: We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane.

Main results: We included 21 RCTs involving 1755 participants: 18 studies recruited adults (mean age 22 to 41 years); three studies targeted young people (mean age 20 years). Most (75%) participants were male. The studies were at low risk of performance, detection and selective outcome reporting bias. One study was at risk of selection bias, and three studies were at risk of attrition bias.All studies involved comparison of active medication and placebo. The medications were diverse, as were the outcomes reported, which limited the extent of analysis.Abstinence at end of treatment was no more likely with Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) preparations than with placebo (risk ratio (RR) 0.98, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.64 to 1.52; 305 participants; 3 studies; moderate-quality evidence). For selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants, mixed action antidepressants, anticonvulsants and mood stabilisers, buspirone and N-acetylcysteine, there was no difference in the likelihood of abstinence at end of treatment compared to placebo (low- to very low-quality evidence).There was qualitative evidence of reduced intensity of withdrawal symptoms with THC preparations compared to placebo. For other pharmacotherapies, this outcome was either not examined, or no significant differences was reported.Adverse effects were no more likely with THC preparations (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.89 to 1.17; 318 participants; 3 studies) or N-acetylcysteine (RR 0.94, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.23; 418 participants; 2 studies) compared to placebo (moderate-quality evidence). For SSRI antidepressants, mixed action antidepressants, buspirone and N-acetylcysteine, there was no difference in adverse effects compared to placebo (low- to very low-quality evidence).There was no difference in the likelihood of withdrawal from treatment due to adverse effects with THC preparations, SSRIs antidepressants, mixed action antidepressants, anticonvulsants and mood stabilisers, buspirone and N-acetylcysteine compared to placebo (low- to very low-quality evidence).There was no difference in the likelihood of treatment completion with THC preparations, SSRI antidepressants, mixed action antidepressants and buspirone compared to placebo (low- to very low-quality evidence) or with N-acetylcysteine compared to placebo (RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.93 to 1.21; 418 participants; 2 studies; moderate-quality evidence). Anticonvulsants and mood stabilisers appeared to reduce the likelihood of treatment completion (RR 0.66, 95% CI 0.47 to 0.92; 141 participants; 3 studies; low-quality evidence).Available evidence on gabapentin (anticonvulsant), oxytocin (neuropeptide) and atomoxetine was insufficient for estimates of effectiveness.

Authors' conclusions: There is incomplete evidence for all of the pharmacotherapies investigated, and for many outcomes the quality of the evidence was low or very low. Findings indicate that SSRI antidepressants, mixed action antidepressants, bupropion, buspirone and atomoxetine are probably of little value in the treatment of cannabis dependence. Given the limited evidence of efficacy, THC preparations should be considered still experimental, with some positive effects on withdrawal symptoms and craving. The evidence base for the anticonvulsant gabapentin, oxytocin, and N-acetylcysteine is weak, but these medications are also worth further investigation.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

SN: was supported by an National Health and Medical Research Council Fellowship while completing this review. SN is an investigator on untied educational grants Indivior on studies unrelated to this work.

LG: none known.

PS: none known.

BLF: received funding from Pfizer in the form of Global Research Awards On Nicotine Dependence or GRAND Awards (awards provided independently from Pfizer by a panel of international experts). The GRAND awards notifications were obtained in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2016. Dr Le Foll received some salary support on some of those grants to compensate for time spent on research (less than 5% of his income). The salary support was received by CAMH and transferred to Dr Le Foll and CAMH controlled the use of the funds. As some of the salary support was received around the time of the previous version of the review (Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(12)), the Funding Arbiters reviewed the case and determined that, because the award followed open competition judged by an independent panel, the funding did not constitute a relevant conflict.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
Methodological quality summary: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item for each included study.
3
3
Methodological quality graph: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item presented as percentages across all included studies.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Δ9‐Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) preparation versus placebo, Outcome 1 Participants abstinent at end of treatment.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Δ9‐Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) preparation versus placebo, Outcome 2 Participants experiencing adverse effects.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Δ9‐Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) preparation versus placebo, Outcome 3 Participants withdrawn due to adverse effects.
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Δ9‐Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) preparation versus placebo, Outcome 4 Completion of scheduled treatment.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Selective serotonin‐reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant versus placebo, Outcome 1 Participants abstinent at end of treatment.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Selective serotonin‐reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant versus placebo, Outcome 2 Participants experiencing adverse effects.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Selective serotonin‐reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant versus placebo, Outcome 3 Participants withdrawn due to adverse effects.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Selective serotonin‐reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant versus placebo, Outcome 4 Completion of scheduled treatment.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed action antidepressant versus placebo, Outcome 1 Participants abstinent at end of treatment.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed action antidepressant versus placebo, Outcome 2 Participants experiencing adverse effects.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed action antidepressant versus placebo, Outcome 3 Participants withdrawn due to adverse effects.
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 Mixed action antidepressant versus placebo, Outcome 4 Completion of scheduled treatment.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Anticonvulsants and mood stabilisers versus placebo, Outcome 1 Participants abstinent at end of treatment.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Anticonvulsants and mood stabilisers versus placebo, Outcome 2 Participants withdrawn due to adverse effects.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Anticonvulsants and mood stabilisers versus placebo, Outcome 3 Completion of scheduled treatment.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Bupropion versus placebo, Outcome 1 Completion of scheduled treatment.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 Buspirone versus placebo, Outcome 1 Participants abstinent at end of treatment.
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 Buspirone versus placebo, Outcome 2 Participants experiencing adverse effects.
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6 Buspirone versus placebo, Outcome 3 Participants withdrawn due to adverse effects.
6.4
6.4. Analysis
Comparison 6 Buspirone versus placebo, Outcome 4 Completion of scheduled treatment.
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7 Atomoxetine versus placebo, Outcome 1 Participants experiencing adverse effects.
7.2
7.2. Analysis
Comparison 7 Atomoxetine versus placebo, Outcome 2 Participants withdrawn due to adverse effects.
7.3
7.3. Analysis
Comparison 7 Atomoxetine versus placebo, Outcome 3 Completion of scheduled treatment.
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8 N‐acetylcysteine versus placebo, Outcome 1 Participants abstinent at end of treatment.
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8 N‐acetylcysteine versus placebo, Outcome 2 Participants experiencing adverse effects.
8.3
8.3. Analysis
Comparison 8 N‐acetylcysteine versus placebo, Outcome 3 Participants withdrawn due to adverse effects.
8.4
8.4. Analysis
Comparison 8 N‐acetylcysteine versus placebo, Outcome 4 Completion of scheduled treatment.
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9 Oxytocin versus placebo, Outcome 1 Participants abstinent at end of treatment.
9.2
9.2. Analysis
Comparison 9 Oxytocin versus placebo, Outcome 2 Participants experiencing adverse effects.
9.3
9.3. Analysis
Comparison 9 Oxytocin versus placebo, Outcome 3 Completion of scheduled treatment.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

References

References to studies included in this review

Allsop 2014 {published data only}
    1. Allsop DJ, Copeland J, Lintzeris N, Dunlop AJ, Montebello M, Sadler C, et al. Nabiximols as an agonist replacement therapy during cannabis withdrawal: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2014;71(3):281‐91. [DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.3947] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Bruno R, Allsop DJ, Copeland J, McGregor L, Norberg MM, Dunlop AJ, et al. The impact of Sativex (R) on cognitive function during treatment for cannabis withdrawal. Drug and Alcohol Review 2013;32:27.
    1. Kevin RC, Allsop DJ, Lintzeris N, Dunlop AJ, Booth J, McGregor IS. Urinary cannabinoid levels during nabiximols (Sativex®)‐medicated inpatient cannabis withdrawal. Forensic Toxicology 2017;35(1):33‐44.
    1. Montebello M, Allsop D, Copeland J, Lintzeris N, Dunlop A, Sadler C, et al. Cannabinoid replacement therapy for management of cannabis withdrawal: a randomized controlled trial of nabiximols (Sativex®). Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2014;48(Suppl 1):79.
Carpenter 2009 {published data only}
    1. Carpenter KM, McDowell D, Brooks DJ, Cheng WY, Levin FR. A preliminary trial: double‐blind comparison of nefazodone, bupropion‐SR, and placebo in the treatment of cannabis dependence. American Journal on Addictions 2009;18(1):53‐64. [DOI: 10.1080/10550490802408936] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Cornelius 2010 {published data only}
    1. Cornelius JR, Bukstein OG, Douaihy AB, Clark DB, Chung TA, Daley DC, et al. Double‐blind fluoxetine trial in comorbid MDD‐CUD youth and young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2010;112(1‐2):39‐45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.05.010] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Cornelius JR, Salloum IM, Ferrell R, Douaihy AB, Hayes J, Kirisci L, et al. Treatment trial and long‐term follow‐up evaluation among co‐morbid youth with major depression and a cannabis use disorder. Advances in Psychology Research 2012;93:109‐21. - PMC - PubMed
Frewen 2007 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Frewen A, Montebello ME, Baillie A, Rea F. Effects of mirtazapine on withdrawal from dependent cannabis use. 69th Annual Scientific Meeting of the College on Problems of Drug Dependence; 2007 June 16‐21; Quebec City, Canada. 2007:21. [MEDLINE: ]
    1. Frewen AR. An Examination of Withdrawal Symptoms and their Relationship with Outcomes in a Combined Behavioural and Pharmacological Intervention for Dependent Cannabis Users [thesis]. North Ryde (Australia): Macquarie University, 2009.
Gray 2012 {published data only}
    1. Bentzley JP, Tomko RL, Gray KM. Low pretreatment impulsivity and high medication adherence increase the odds of abstinence in a trial of N‐acetylcysteine in adolescents with cannabis use disorder. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2016;63:72‐7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsat2015.12.003] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Gray KM, Carpenter MJ, Baker NL, DeSantis SM, Kryway E, Hartwell KJ, et al. A double‐blind randomized controlled trial of N‐acetylcysteine in cannabis‐dependent adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry 2012;169(8):805‐12. [DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12010055; EMBASE: AN 2012469181] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. McClure EA, Baker NL, Gray KM. Cigarette smoking during an N‐acetylcysteine‐assisted cannabis cessation trial in adolescents. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 2014;40(4):285‐91. [DOI: 10.3109/00952990.2013.878718] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Roten A, Baker NL, Gray KM. Cognitive performance in a placebo‐controlled pharmacotherapy trial for youth with marijuana dependence. Addictive Behaviors 2015;45:119‐23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.01.013] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Roten AT, Baker NL, Gray KM. Marijuana craving trajectories in an adolescent marijuana cessation pharmacotherapy trial. Addictive Behaviors 2013;38(3):1788‐91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.11.003] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Gray 2017 {published data only}
    1. Gray KM, Sonne SC, McClure EA, Ghitza UE, Matthews AG, McRae‐Clark AL, et al. A randomized placebo‐controlled trial of N‐acetylcysteine for cannabis use disorder in adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2017;177:249‐57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.04.020] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. McClure EA, Sonne SC, Winhusen T, Carroll KM, Ghitza UE, McRae‐Clark AL, et al. Achieving Cannabis Cessation – Evaluating N‐acetylcysteine Treatment (ACCENT): design and implementation of a multi‐site, randomized controlled study in the National Institute on Drug Abuse Clinical Trials Network. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2014;39(2):211‐23. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Sherman BJ, McRae‐Clark AL, Baker NL, Sonne SC, Killeen TK, Cloud K, et al. Gender differences among treatment‐seeking adults with cannabis use disorder: Clinical profiles of women and men enrolled in the Achieving Cannabis Cessation – Evaluating N‐acetylcysteine Treatment (ACCENT) study. American Journal on Addictions 2017;26(2):136‐44. [DOI: 10.1111/ajad.12503] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Squeglia L, Tomko R, Baker N, McClure E, Book G, Gray K. The effect of N‐acetylcysteine on alcohol use during a cannabis cessation trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2018;185:17‐22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.12.005] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Johnston 2014 {published data only}
    1. Allsop DJ, Bartlett DJ, Johnston J, Helliwell D, Winstock A, McGregor IS, et al. The effects of lithium carbonate supplemented with nitrazepam on sleep disturbance during cannabis abstinence. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine 2015;11(10):1153‐62. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
    1. Johnston J, Lintzeris N, Allsop DJ, Suraev A, Booth J, Carson DS, et al. Lithium carbonate in the management of cannabis withdrawal: a randomized placebo‐controlled trial in an inpatient setting. Psychopharmacology 2014;231(24):4623‐36. [DOI: ] - PubMed
    1. Johnston J, Lintzeris N, McGregor I, Allsop DJ, Helliwell D, Winstock A. A double blind, randomised, placebo controlled trial of lithium carbonate for the management of cannabis withdrawal [conference abstract]. Drug and Alcohol Review 2013;32:43.
    1. Johnston J, Lintzeris N, McGregor I, Guastella A, Allsop D, Helliwell D, et al. Preliminary findings from a double blind, randomised, placebo controlled trial of lithium carbonate for the management of cannabis withdrawal [conference abstract]. Drug and Alcohol Review 2012;31:45.
Levin 2004 {published data only}
    1. Levin FR, McDowell D, Evans SM, Nunes E, Akerele E, Donovan S, et al. Pharmacotherapy for marijuana dependence: a double‐blind, placebo‐controlled pilot study of divalproex sodium. American Journal on Addictions 2004;13:21‐32. [DOI: 10.1080/10550490490265280] - DOI - PubMed
Levin 2011 {published data only}
    1. Levin FR, Mariani JJ, Brooks DJ, Pavlicova M, Cheng W, Nunes EV. Dronabinol for the treatment of cannabis dependence: a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2011;116:142‐50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.12.010; MEDLINE: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Levin 2013 {published data only}
    1. Kelly MA, Pavlicova M, Glass A, Mariani JJ, Bisaga A, Sullivan MA, et al. Do withdrawal‐like symptoms mediate increased marijuana smoking in individuals treated with venlafaxine‐XR?. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2014;144:42‐6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.06.040] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Levin FR, Mariani J, Brooks DJ, Pavlicova M, Nunes EV, Agosti V, et al. A randomized double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial of venlafaxine‐extended release for co‐occurring cannabis dependence and depressive disorders. Addiction 2013;108(6):1084‐94. [DOI: 10.1111/add.12108] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Levin 2016 {published data only}
    1. Levin FR, Mariani JJ, Pavlicova M, Brooks D, Glass A, Mahony A, et al. Dronabinol and lofexidine for cannabis use disorder: a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2016;159:53‐60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.11.025] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Mason 2012 {published data only}
    1. Mason BJ, Crean R, Goodell V, Light JM, Quello S, Shadan F, et al. A proof‐of‐concept randomized controlled study of gabapentin: effects on cannabis use, withdrawal and executive function deficits in cannabis‐dependent adults. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012;37:1689‐98. [DOI: 10.1038/npp.2012.14] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
McRae‐Clark 2009 {published data only}
    1. McRae‐Clark AL, Baker NL, Sonne SC, DeVane C, Wagner A, Norton J. Concordance of direct and indirect measures of medication adherence in a treatment trial for cannabis dependence. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2015;57:70‐4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsat.2015.05.002] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. McRae‐Clark AL, Carter RE, Killeen TK, Carpenter MJ, Wahlquist AE, Simpson SA, et al. A placebo‐controlled trial of buspirone for the treatment of marijuana dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2009;105:132‐8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.06.022] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
McRae‐Clark 2010 {published data only}
    1. McRae‐Clark AL, Carter RE, Killeen TK, Carpenter MJ, White KG, Brady KT. A placebo‐controlled trial of atomoxetine in marijuana‐dependent individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal on Addictions 2010;19(6):481‐9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010.00076.x] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
McRae‐Clark 2015 {published data only}
    1. McRae‐Clark AL, Baker NL, Gray KM, Killeen TK, Wagner AM, Brady KT, et al. Buspirone treatment of cannabis dependence: a randomized, placebo‐controlled trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2015;156:29‐37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.013] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Sherman BJ, Baker NL, McRae‐Clark AL. Gender differences in cannabis use disorder treatment: change readiness and taking steps predict worse cannabis outcomes for women. Addictive Behaviors 2016;60:197‐202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.04.014] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
McRae‐Clark 2016 {published data only}
    1. McRae‐Clark AL, Baker NL, Gray KM, Killeen T, Hartwell KJ, Simonian SJ. Vilazodone for cannabis dependence: a randomized, controlled pilot trial. American Journal on Addictions 2016;25(1):69‐75. [DOI: 10.1111/ajad.12324] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Miranda 2017 {published data only}
    1. Gray JC, Treloar Padovano H, Wemm SE, Miranda R. Predictors of topiramate tolerability in heavy cannabis‐using adolescents and young adults: a secondary analysis of a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 2018;38(2):134‐7. [DOI: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000843] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Miranda R, Treloar H, Blanchard A, Justus A, Monti PM, Chun T, et al. Topiramate and motivational enhancement therapy for cannabis use among youth: a randomized placebo‐controlled pilot study. Addiction Biology 2017;22(3):779‐90. [DOI: 10.1111/adb.12350] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Treloar H, Blanchard A, Justus A, Monti P, Chun T, Swift R, et al. Effects of topiramate on cannabis use among youth: an initial proof‐of concept trial in the natural environment. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 2015;39:265A.
Penetar 2012 {published data only}
    1. Penetar DM, Looby AR, Ryan ET, Maywalt MA, Lukas SE. Bupropion reduces some of the symptoms of marihuana withdrawal in chronic marihuana users: a pilot study. Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment 2012;6:63‐71. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Sherman 2017 {published data only}
    1. Sherman BJ, Baker NL, McRae‐Clark AL. Effect of oxytocin pretreatment on cannabis outcomes in a brief motivational intervention. Psychiatry Research 2017;249:318‐20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.01.027] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Trigo 2018 {published data only}
    1. Trigo J, Soliman A, Staios G, Quilty L, Fischer B, George T, et al. Sativex associated with behavioral‐relapse prevention strategy as treatment for cannabis dependence, a pilot study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;41:S422‐S3. [DOI: 10.1038/npp.2016.241] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Trigo JM, Quilty L, Soliman A, Fischer B, Rehm J, Selby P, et al. Sativex associated with behavioral‐relapse prevention strategy as treatment for cannabis dependence: a pilot randomized clinical trial. Neurotherapeutics 2017;14(3):819. [DOI: 10.1007/s13311-017-0543-x] - DOI
    1. Trigo JM, Soliman A, Quilty LC, Fischer B, Rehm J, Selby P, et al. Nabiximols combined with motivational enhancement/cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of cannabis dependence: a pilot randomized clinical trial. PloS One 2018;13(1):e0190768. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190768] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Weinstein 2014 {published data only}
    1. Weinstein AM, Miller H, Bluvstein I, Rapoport E, Schreiber S, Bar‐Hamburger R, et al. Treatment of cannabis dependence using escitalopram in combination with cognitive‐behavior therapy: a double‐blind placebo‐controlled study. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 2014;40(1):16‐22. [DOI: 10.3109/00952990.2013.819362] - DOI - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Adams 2018 {published data only}
    1. Adams TA, Arnsten JH, Ning Y, Nahvi S. Feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of varenicline for treating co‐occurring cannabis and tobacco use. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 2018;50(1):12‐8. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2017.1370746] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Akerele 2007 {published data only}
    1. Akerele E, Levin FR. Comparison of olanzapine to risperidone in substance‐abusing individuals with schizophrenia. American Journal on Addictions 2007;16:260‐8. [DOI: 10.1080/10550490701389658] - DOI - PubMed
Brown 2013 {published data only}
    1. Brown PC, Budney AJ, Thostenson JD, Stanger C. Initiation of abstinence in adolescents treated for marijuana use disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2013;44(4):384‐90. [EMBASE: AN 2013109720] - PMC - PubMed
Budney 2007b {published data only}
    1. Budney AJ, Higgins ST, Radonovich KJ, Novy PL. Oral delta‐9‐tetrahydrocannabinol suppresses cannabis withdrawal symptoms. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2007;86(1):22‐9. [CENTRAL: CN‐00590656] - PubMed
Cooper 2013 {published data only}
    1. Cooper ZD, Foltin RW, Hart CL, Vosburg SK, Comer SD, Haney M. A human laboratory study investigating the effects of quetiapine on marijuana withdrawal and relapse in daily marijuana smokers. Addiction Biology 2013;18(6):993‐1002. [EMBASE: AN 2013769387] - PMC - PubMed
Cornelius 1999 {published data only}
    1. Cornelius JR, Salloum IM, Haskett RF, Ehler JG, Jarrett PJ, Thase ME, et al. Fluoxetine versus placebo for the marijuana use of depressed alcoholics. Addictive Behaviours 1999;24(1):111‐4. - PubMed
Cornelius 2008 {published data only}
    1. Cornelius JR, Chung T, Martin C, Wood DS, Clark DB. Cannabis withdrawal is common among treatment‐seeking adolescents with cannabis dependence and major depression, and is associated with rapid relapse to dependence. Addictive Behaviors 2008;33(11):1500‐5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.02.001; MEDLINE: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Cornelius 2015 {published data only}
    1. Cornelius JR, Douaihy A, Daley D, Chung T, Wesesky MA, Wood DS. Mirtazapine pilot trial in comorbid MDD/SUD: long‐term follow‐up results. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2015;156:e48‐e9.
Findling 2009 {published data only}
    1. Findling RL, Pagano ME, McNamara NK, Stansbrey RJ, Faber JE, Lingler J, et al. The short‐term safety and efficacy of fluoxetine in depressed adolescents with alcohol and cannabis use disorders: a pilot randomized placebo‐controlled trial. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health 2009;3:11. [CENTRAL: CN‐00754249; DOI: 10.1186/1753-2000-3-11] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hirschtritt ME, Pagano ME, Christian KM, McNamara NK, Stansbrey RJ, Lingler J, et al. Moderators of fluoxetine treatment response for children and adolescents with comorbid depression and substance use disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2012;42(4):366‐72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsat.2011.09.010; PsycINFO AN 2011‐27672‐001] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Geller 1998 {published data only}
    1. Geller B, Cooper TB, Sun K, Zimermann B, Frazier J, Williams M, et al. Double‐blind and placebo‐controlled study of lithium for adolescent bipolar disorders with secondary substance dependency. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1998;37(2):171‐8. [PsycINFO AN 1997‐39092‐009] - PubMed
    1. Geller B, Cooper TB, Watts HE, Cosby CM, Fox LW. Early findings from a pharmacokinetically designed double‐blind and placebo‐controlled study of lithium for adolescents comorbid with bipolar and substance dependency disorders. Progress in Neuro‐Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 1992;16(3):281‐99. [EMBASE: AN 1992154297] - PubMed
Gillman 2006 {published data only}
    1. Gillman MA, Harker N, Lichtigfeld FJ. Combined cannabis/methaqualone withdrawal treated with psychotropic analgesic nitrous oxide. International Journal of Neuroscience 2006;116:859‐69. [CENTRAL: CN‐00566721; DOI: 10.1080/00207450600753998] - DOI - PubMed
Gray 2010 {published data only}
    1. Gray KM, Watson NL, Carpenter MJ, Larowe SD. N‐Acetylcysteine (NAC) in young marijuana users: an open‐label pilot study. American Journal on Addictions 2010;19(2):187‐9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2009.00027.x; EMBASE: 2010123976] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Haney 2001 {published data only}
    1. Haney M, Ward AS, Comer SD, Hart CL, Foltin RW, Fischman MW. Bupropion SR worsens mood during marijuana withdrawal in humans. Psychopharmacology 2001;155(2):171‐9. - PubMed
Haney 2003a {published data only}
    1. Haney M, Hart CL, Ward AS, Foltin RW. Nefazodone decreases anxiety during marijuana withdrawal in humans. Psychopharmacology 2003;165(2):157‐65. - PubMed
Haney 2003b {published data only}
    1. Haney M, Bisaga A, Foltin RW. Interaction between naltrexone and oral THC in heavy marijuana smokers. Psychopharmacology 2003;166:77‐85. [DOI: 10.1007/s00213-002-1279-8] - DOI - PubMed
Haney 2004 {published data only}
    1. Haney M, Hart CL, Vosburg SK, Nasser J, Bennett A, Zubaran C, et al. Marijuana withdrawal in humans: effects of oral THC or divalproex. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004;29:158‐70. - PubMed
Haney 2008 {published data only}
    1. Haney M, Hart CL, Vosburg SK, Comer SD, Reed SC, Foltin RW. Effects of THC and lofexidine in a human laboratory model of marijuana withdrawal and relapse. Psychopharmacology 2008;197(1):157‐68. - PMC - PubMed
Haney 2010 {published data only}
    1. Haney M, Hart CL, Vosburg SK, Comer SD, Reed SC, Cooper ZD, et al. Effects of baclofen and mirtazapine on a laboratory model of marijuana withdrawal and relapse. Psychopharmacology 2010;211(2):233‐44. [CENTRAL: CN‐00760900; DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-1888-6] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Haney 2013 {published data only}
    1. Haney M, Bedi G, Cooper Z. Nabilone dose‐response in marijuana smokers: comparison to dronabinol. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010;35:S277.
    1. Haney M, Bedi G, Cooper Z, Vosburg S, Comer S, Foltin R. Nabilone decreases marijuana withdrawal and relapse in the human laboratory. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;36:S177‐8. [DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.291; EMBASE: AN 70607410] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Haney M, Cooper ZD, Bedi G, Vosburg SK, Comer SD, Foltin RW. Nabilone decreases marijuana withdrawal and a laboratory measure of marijuana relapse. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013;38(8):1557‐65. [DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.54; MEDLINE: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Haney 2015 {published data only}
    1. Haney M, Ramesh D, Glass A, Pavlicova M, Bedi G, Cooper ZD. Naltrexone maintenance decreases cannabis self‐administration and subjective effects in daily cannabis smokers. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015;40(11):2489‐98. - PMC - PubMed
Haney 2016 {published data only}
    1. Babalonis S, Haney M, Malcolm RJ, Lofwall MR, Votaw VR, Sparenborg S, et al. Oral cannabidiol does not produce a signal for abuse liability in frequent marijuana smokers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2017;172:9‐13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.11.030] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Babalonis S, Lofwall MR, Nuzzo PA, Elayi C, Malcolm RJ, Haney M, et al. Examination of the behavioral effects of oral cannabidiol alone and in combination with smoked marijuana. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2015;156:e13.
    1. Haney M, Malcolm RJ, Babalonis S, Nuzzo PA, Cooper ZD, Bedi G, et al. Oral cannabidiol does not alter the subjective, reinforcing or cardiovascular effects of smoked cannabis. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;41(8):1974‐82. - PMC - PubMed
Herrmann 2016 {published data only}
    1. Haney M, Cooper Z, Bedi G, Reed SC, Ramesh D, Foltin RW. Marijuana withdrawal and relapse in the human laboratory: effect of zolpidem alone and in combination with nabilone. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013;38:S508‐9. [DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.281; EMBASE: AN 71278673] - DOI
    1. Herrmann ES, Cooper Z, Bedi G, Ramesh D, Reed SC, Comer SD, et al. Effects of zolpidem alone and in combination with nabilone on cannabis withdrawal and relapse among non‐treatment‐seeking cannabis users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2017;171:e88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.08.247] - DOI
    1. Herrmann ES, Cooper ZD, Bedi G, Ramesh D, Reed SC, Comer SD, et al. Effects of zolpidem alone and in combination with nabilone on cannabis withdrawal and a laboratory model of relapse in cannabis users. Psychopharmacology 2016;233(13):2469‐78. - PMC - PubMed
Nanjayya 2010 {published data only}
    1. Nanjayya SB, Shivappa M, Chand PK, Murthy P, Benegal V. Baclofen in cannabis dependence syndrome. Biological Psychiatry 2010;68:e9‐e10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.03.033; MEDLINE: ] - DOI - PubMed
Notzon 2018 {published data only}
    1. Notzon DP, Kelly MA, Choi CJ, Pavlicova M, Mahony AL, Brooks DJ, et al. Open‐label pilot study of injectable naltrexone for cannabis dependence. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 2018;44(6):612‐29. [DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2017.1423321] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Rubio 2006 {published data only}
    1. Rubio G, Martinez I, Recio A, Ponce G, Lopez‐Munoz F, Alamo C, et al. Risperidone versus zuclopenthixol in the treatment of schizophrenia with substance abuse comorbidity: a long‐term randomized, controlled, crossover study. European Journal of Psychiatry 2006;20(3):133‐46.
Schnell 2014 {published data only}
    1. Schnell T, Koethe D, Krasnianski A, Gairing S, Schnell K, Daumann J, et al. Ziprasidone versus clozapine in the treatment of dually diagnosed (DD) patients with schizophrenia and cannabis use disorders: a randomized study. American Journal on Addictions 2014;23(3):308‐12. - PubMed
Sevy 2011 {published data only}
    1. Sevy S, Robinson DG, Sunday S, Napolitano B, Miller R, McCormack J, et al. Olanzapine vs risperidone in patients with first‐episode schizophrenia and a lifetime history of cannabis use disorders: 16‐week clinical and substance use outcomes. Psychiatry Research 2011;188(3):310‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Sugarman 2011 {published data only}
    1. Sugarman DE, Poling J, Sofuoglu M. The safety of modafinil in combination with oral 9‐tetrahydrocannabinol in humans. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 2011;98(1):94‐100. [DOI: ] - PMC - PubMed
Trigo 2016 {published data only}
    1. Trigo JM, Lagzdins D, Rehm J, Selby P, Gamaleddin I, Fischer B, et al. Effects of fixed or self‐titrated dosages of Sativex on cannabis withdrawal and cravings. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2016;161:298‐306. - PMC - PubMed
Vandrey 2011 {published data only}
    1. Vandrey R, Smith MT, McCann UD, Budney AJ, Curran EM. Sleep disturbance and the effects of extended‐release zolpidem during cannabis withdrawal. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2011;117:38‐44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.01.003] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Vandrey 2013 {published data only}
    1. Vandrey R, Stitzer ML, Mintzer MZ, Huestis MA, Murray JA, Lee D. The dose effects of short‐term dronabinol (oral THC) maintenance in daily cannabis users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2013;128(1‐2):64‐70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.08.001; MEDLINE: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Vandrey 2016 {published data only}
    1. Vandrey R. Cannabis withdrawal and sleep disturbance: implications for the treatment of cannabis use disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2016;55(10):S66.
    1. Vandrey R, Budney AJ, Smith M, Herrmann E, Hampson A, Stitzer ML. A pilot study of zolpidem pharmacotherapy in the treatment of cannabis use disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2015;146:e10.
Van Nimwegen 2008 {published data only}
    1. Nimwegen LJ, Haan L, Beveren NJ, Helm M, Brink W, Linszen D. Effect of olanzapine and risperidone on subjective well‐being and craving for cannabis in patients with schizophrenia or related disorders: a double‐blind randomized controlled trial. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 2008;53(6):400‐5. [EMBASE: AN 2008305264] - PubMed
Winstock 2009 {published data only}
    1. Winstock AR, Lea T, Copeland J. Lithium carbonate in the management of cannabis withdrawal in humans: an open‐label study. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2009;23(1):84‐93. [CENTRAL: CN‐00714374; DOI: 10.1177/0269881108089584] - DOI - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

Bhardwaj 2018 {published data only}
    1. Bhardwaj AK, Allsop DJ, Copeland J, McGregor IS, Dunlop A, Shanahan M, et al. Randomised controlled trial (RCT) of cannabinoid replacement therapy (nabiximols) for the management of treatment‐resistant cannabis dependent patients: a study protocol. BMC Psychiatry 2018;18(1):140. - PMC - PubMed
D'Souza 2015 {published data only}
    1. D'Souza D. FAAH inhibitor PF‐04457845 in the treatment of cannabis dependence. Neuropsychopharmacology 2017;43:S72. [DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.263] - DOI
    1. D'Souza D, Creatura G, Cortes‐Briones J, Thurnauer H, Bluez G, Deaso E, et al. FAAH inhibitor treatment for cannabis dependence. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015;40:S437‐8.
NCT00974376 {published data only}
    1. NCT00974376. Gabapentin treatment of cannabis dependence. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00974376 (first received 1 September 2009).
NCT01598896 {published data only}
    1. NCT01598896. Combination of dronabinol and clonidine for cannabis dependence in patients with schizophrenia. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01598896 (first received 11 May 2012).
NCT02044809 {published data only}
    1. NCT02044809. Cannabidiol: a novel intervention for cannabis use problems?. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02044809 (first received 22 January 2014).
NCT02579421 {published data only}
    1. NCT02579421. Hormones and reduction in co‐users of marijuana and nicotine. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02579421 (first received 13 October 2015).

Additional references

Agrawal 2008
    1. Agrawal A, Pergadia ML, Lynskey MT. Is there evidence for symptoms of cannabis withdrawal in the National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions?. American Journal on Addictions 2008; Vol. 17, issue 3:199‐208. - PubMed
Beauvais 2004
    1. Beauvais F, Jumper‐Thurman P, Helm H, Plested B, Burnside M. Surveillance of drug use among American Indian adolescents: patterns over 25 years. Journal of Adolescent Health 2004; Vol. 34, issue 6:493‐500. [1054‐139X] - PubMed
Benyamina 2008
    1. Benyamina A, Lecacheux M, Blecha L, Reynaud M, Lukasiewcz M. Pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy in cannabis withdrawal and dependence. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 2008;8(3):479‐91. - PubMed
Budney 2003
    1. Budney AJ, Moore BA, Vandrey RG, Hughes JR. The time course and significance of cannabis withdrawal. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2003; Vol. 112, issue 3:393‐402. - PubMed
Budney 2006
    1. Budney AJ, Hughes JR. The cannabis withdrawal syndrome. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 2006; Vol. 19, issue 3:233‐8. - PubMed
Budney 2007a
    1. Budney AJ, Roffman R, Stephens RS, Walker D. Marijuana dependence and its treatment. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice 2007; Vol. 4, issue 1:4‐16. - PMC - PubMed
Chung 2008
    1. Chung T, Martin CS, Cornelius JR, Clark DB. Cannabis withdrawal predicts severity of cannabis involvement at 1‐year follow‐up among treated adolescents. Addiction 2008; Vol. 103, issue 5:787‐99. - PMC - PubMed
Clough 2004
    1. Clough AR, D'Abbs P, Cairney S, Gray D, Maruff P, Parker R, et al. Emerging patterns of cannabis and other substance use in Aboriginal communities in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory: a study of two communities. Drug and Alcohol Review 2004; Vol. 23, issue 4:381‐90. - PubMed
Copeland 2001
    1. Copeland J, Swift W, Rees V. Clinical profile of participants in a brief intervention program for cannabis use disorder. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2001; Vol. 20, issue 1:45‐52. - PubMed
Copeland 2014
    1. Copeland J, Clement N, Swift W. Cannabis use, harms and the management of cannabis use disorder. Neuropsychiatry 2014;4(1):55‐63. [DOI: 10.2217/npy.13.90] - DOI
Copersino 2006
    1. Copersino ML, Boyd SJ, Tashkin DP, Huestis MA, Heishman SJ, Dermand JC, et al. Cannabis withdrawal among non‐treatment‐seeking adult cannabis users. American Journal on Addictions 2006; Vol. 15, issue 1:8‐14. - PubMed
Danovitch 2012
    1. Danovitch I, Gorelick DA. State of the art treatments for cannabis dependence. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 2012;35(2):309‐26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.psc.2012.03.003] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
DSM‐5
    1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. dsm.psychiatryonline.org 2013.
EMCDDA 2004
    1. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Cannabis problems in context: understanding the increase in European treatment demands. www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index34898EN.html 2004, issue Selected Issue 2:81‐92.
EMCDDA Cannabis Drug Profile
    1. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Cannabis drug profile. www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug‐profiles/cannabis Accessed prior to: 13 January 2019.
Gates 2016
    1. Gates PJ, Sabioni P, Copeland J, Foll B, Gowing L. Psychosocial interventions for cannabis use disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, Issue 5. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005336.pub4] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Gorelick 2016
    1. Gorelick DA. Pharmacological treatment of cannabis‐related disorders: a narrative review. Current Pharmaceutical Design 2016;22(42):6409‐19. [DOI: 10.2174/1381612822666160822150822] - DOI - PubMed
Gruber 2003
    1. Gruber AJ, Pope HG, Hudson JI, Yurgelun‐Todd D. Attributes of long‐term heavy cannabis users: a case‐control study. Psychological Medicine 2003; Vol. 33, issue 8:1415‐22. - PubMed
Hall 2001
    1. Hall W, Degenhardt L, Lynskey M. The Health and Psychological Effects of Cannabis Use. 2nd Edition. Canberra (Australia): Commonwealth of Australia, 2001. [National Drug Strategy Monograph No. 44]
Hall 2009
    1. Hall W, Degenhardt L. Adverse health effects of non‐medical cannabis use. Lancet 2009; Vol. 374, issue 9698:1383‐91. - PubMed
Hart 2005
    1. Hart CL. Increasing treatment options for cannabis dependence: a review of potential pharmacotherapies. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2005; Vol. 80, issue 2:147‐59. - PubMed
Hasin 2008
    1. Hasin DS, Keyes KM, Alderson D, Wang S, Aharonovich E, Grant BF. Cannabis withdrawal in the United States: results from NESARC. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2008; Vol. 69, issue 9:1354‐63. - PMC - PubMed
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JP, Green S, editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration 2011. Available from handbook.cochrane.org.
Large 2011
    1. Large M, Sharma S, Compton MT, Slade T, Nielssen O. Cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry 2011;68(6):555‐61. - PubMed
Lev‐Ran 2013a
    1. Lev‐Ran S, Strat Y, Imtiaz S, Rehm J, Foll B. Gender differences in prevalence of substance use disorders among individuals with lifetime exposure to substances: results from a large representative sample. American Journal on Addictions 2013;22:7‐13. - PubMed
Lev‐Ran 2013b
    1. Lev‐Ran S, Foll B, McKenzie K, George TP, Rehm J. Cannabis use and cannabis use disorders among individuals with mental illness. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2013;54:589‐98. - PubMed
McCann 2015
    1. McCann DJ, Ramey T, Skolnick P. Outcome measures in medication trials for substance use disorders. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry 2015;2(2):113‐21.
McClure 2012
    1. McClure EA, Stitzer ML, Vandrey R. Characterizing smoking topography of cannabis in heavy users. Psychopharmacology 2012;220:309‐18. - PMC - PubMed
McLoughlin 2014
    1. McLoughlin BC, Pushpa‐Rajah JA, Gillies D, Rathbone J, Variend H, Kalakouti E, et al. Cannabis and schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 10. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004837.pub3] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Milin 2008
    1. Milin R, Manion I, Dare G, Walker S. Prospective assessment of cannabis withdrawal in adolescents with cannabis dependence: a pilot study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2008; Vol. 47, issue 2:174‐9. - PubMed
Minozzi 2010
    1. Minozzi S, Davoli M, Bargagli M, Amato L, Vecchi S, Perucci C. An overview of systematic reviews on cannabis and psychosis: discussing apparently conflicting results. Drug and Alcohol Review 2010;29(3):304‐17. - PubMed
Nordstrom 2007
    1. Nordstrom BR, Levin FR. Treatment of cannabis use disorders: a review of the literature. American Journal on Addictions 2007; Vol. 16:331‐42. - PubMed
Peacock 2018
    1. Peacock A, Leung J, Larney S, Colledge S, Hickman M, Rehm J, et al. Global statistics on alcohol, tobacco and illicit drug use: 2017 status report. Addiction 2018;113(10):1905‐26. [DOI: 10.1111/add.14234] - DOI - PubMed
Review Manager 2014 [Computer program]
    1. Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.3. Copenhagen: Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
SAMHSA 2008
    1. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS): 1996‐2006. National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services. www.oas.samhsa.gov/copies.cfm. Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2008. [DASIS Series: S‐43, DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 08‐4347]
Schűnemann 2013
    1. Schűnemann H, Brozek J, Guyatt G, Oxman A, editor(s). GRADE handbook for grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. The GRADE Working Group, 2013. gdt.guidelinedevelopment.org/app/handbook/handbook.html (accessed prior to 13 January 2019).
Sherman 2016
    1. Sherman BJ, McRae‐Clarke AL. Treatment of cannabis use disorder: current science and future outlook. Reviews of Therapeutics 2016;36(5):511‐35. [DOI: 10.1002/phar.1747] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Silins 2014
    1. Silins E, Horwood LJ, Patton GC, Fergusson DM, Olsson CA, Hutchinson DM, et al. Young adult sequelae of adolescent cannabis use: an integrative analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 2014;1:286‐96. [DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70307-4] - DOI - PubMed
Silins 2015
    1. Silins E, Fergusson DM, Patton GC, Horwood LJ, Olsson CA, Hutchinson DM, et al. Adolescent substance use and educational attainment: an integrative data analysis comparing cannabis and alcohol from three Australasian cohorts. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2015;156:90‐6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.034] - DOI - PubMed
Solowij 2008
    1. Solowij N, Battisti R. The chronic effects of cannabis on memory in humans: a review. Current Drug Abuse Reviews 2008;1(1):81‐98. - PubMed
van der Pol 2014
    1. Pol P, Liebregts N, Brunt T, Amsterdam J, Graaf R, Korf DJ, et al. Cross‐sectional and prospective relation of cannabis potency, dosing and smoking behaviour with cannabis dependence: an ecological study. Addiction 2014;109:1101‐9. - PubMed
Vandrey 2009
    1. Vandrey R, Haney M. Pharmacotherapy for cannabis dependence: how close are we?. CNS Drugs 2009; Vol. 23, issue 7:543‐53. - PMC - PubMed
Volkow 2014
    1. Volkow ND, Baler RD, Compton WM, Weiss SR. Adverse health effects of marijuana use. New England Journal of Medicine 2014;370:2219‐27. - PMC - PubMed
Walther 2016
    1. Walther L, Gantner A, Heinz A, Majić T. Evidence‐based treatment options in cannabis dependency. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 2016;113(39):653‐9. [DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2016.0653] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
World Drug Report 2017
    1. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2017. www.unodc.org/wdr2017 (accessed prior to 13 January 2019). [eISBN 978‐92‐1‐060623‐3]

References to other published versions of this review

Marshall 2014
    1. Marshall K, Gowing L, Ali R, Foll B. Pharmacotherapies for cannabis dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 12. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD008940.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed

MeSH terms