Perspectives on immunotherapy via oncolytic viruses

Abstract

Background: With few exceptions, current chemotherapy and radiotherapy protocols only obtain a slightly prolonged survival with severe adverse effects in patients with advanced solid tumors. In particular, most solid malignancies not amenable to radical surgery still carry a dismal prognosis, which unfortunately is also the case for relapsing disease after surgery. Even though targeted therapies obtained good results, clinical experience showed that tumors eventually develop resistance. On the other hand, earlier attempts of cancer immunotherapy failed to show consistent efficacy. More recently, a deeper knowledge of immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment (TME) allowed the development of effective drugs: in particular, monoclonal antibodies targeting the so-called immune checkpoint molecules yielded striking and lasting effects in some tumors. Unfortunately, these monoclonal antibodies are not effective in a majority of patients and are ineffective in several solid malignancies. Furthermore, due to their mechanism of action, checkpoint inhibitors often elicit autoimmune-like disease.

Main body: The use of viruses as oncolytic agents (OVs) was considered in the past, while only recently OVs revealed a connection with immunotherapy. However, their antitumoral potential has remained largely unexplored, due to safety concerns and some limitations in the techniques to manipulate viruses. OV research was recently revived by a better knowledge of viral/cancer biology and advances in the methodologies to delete virulence/immune-escape related genes from even complex viral genomes or "to arm" OVs with appropriate transgenes. Recently, the first oncolytic virus, the HSV-1 based Talimogene Laherparepvec (T-VEC), was approved for the treatment of non-resectable melanoma in USA and Europe.

Conclusion: OVs have the potential to become powerful agents of cancer immune and gene therapy. Indeed, in addition to their selective killing activity, they can act as versatile gene expression platforms for the delivery of therapeutic genes. This is particularly true for viruses with a large DNA genome, that can be manipulated to address the multiple immunosuppressive features of the TME. This review will focus on the open issues, on the most promising lines of research in the OV field and, more in general, on how OVs could be improved to achieve real clinical breakthroughs in cancers that are usually difficult to treat by immunotherapy.

Keywords: Cancer gene therapy; Cancer immunotherapy; Oncolytic HSV-1; Oncolytic virotherapy; Oncolytic virus; Tumor microenvironment.

Fig. 1

Schematic representation of cancer cells (cyan) in their immunosuppressive microenvironment, which they shape by secreting cytokines and growth factors. Immune checkpoint molecules and immunosuppressive enzymes released in the milieu inhibit cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Infection of cancer cells by an oncolytic virus (OV, gray) disrupts the immunosuppressive features of the microenvironment by triggering immunogenic cell death and releasing proinflammatory substances. OVs can also be armed with therapeutic genes targeting non malignant cells that support tumor growth and immune escape, such as cancer associated fibroblasts, M2 macrophages, myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and regulatory T lymphocytes