Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry, and Global Distribution of Mangroves-A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Mangroves are ecologically important plants in marine habitats that occupy the coastlines of many countries. In addition to their key ecological importance, various parts of mangroves are widely used in folklore medicine and claimed to effectively manage a panoply of human pathologies. To date, no comprehensive attempt has been made to compile and critically analyze the published literature in light of its ethnopharmacological uses. This review aims to provide a comprehensive account of the morphological characteristics, ethnobotany, global distribution, taxonomy, ethnopharmacology, phytochemical profiles, and pharmacological activities of traditionally used mangroves. Out of 84 mangrove species, only 27 species were found to be traditionally used, however not all of them are pharmacologically validated. The most common pharmacological activities reported were antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic properties. Mangroves traditionally reported against ulcers have not been extensively validated for possible pharmacological properties. Terpenoids, tannins, steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins were the main classes of phytochemicals isolated from mangroves. Given that mangroves have huge potential for a wide array of medicinal products and drug discovery to prevent and treat many diseases, there is a dire need for careful investigations substantiated with accurate scientific and clinical evidence to ensure safety and efficient use of these plants and validate their pharmacological properties and toxicity.

Keywords: Avicennia species; Bruguiera gymnorhiza; Rhizophora mucronata; bioactive compounds; pneumatophores; traditional uses.

Figure 1

Classification of mangroves.

Figure 2

(A) R. mucronata growing along the coastline at Bras d’Eau public beach, Mauritius; (B) propagule; (C) flower.

Figure 3

(A) B. gymnorhiza growing along the coastline at Bambous Virieux, Mauritius; (B) propagule; (C) flower.

Figure 4

Countries using mangroves traditionally.

Figure 5

Traditionally used mangrove species.

Figure 6

Types of mangrove extracts used in inhibition assays.

Figure 7

Types of plant parts of mangroves used in inhibition assays.

Figure 8

Types of assays.

Figure 9

Pharmacologically validated species of mangroves.

Figure 10

Classes of compounds isolated from mangroves.

Figure 11

Chemical structures of compounds 1–20 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 12

Chemical structures of compounds 21–39 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 13

Chemical structures of compounds 40–55 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 14

Chemical structures of compounds 55–76 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 15

Chemical structures of compounds 77–98 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 16

Chemical structures of compounds 99–114 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 17

Chemical structures of compounds 115–128 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 18

Chemical structures of compounds 129–149 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 19

Chemical structures of compounds 150–176 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 20

Chemical structures of compounds 177–202 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 21

Chemical structures of compounds 203–223 isolated from mangrove speices.

Figure 22

Chemical structures of compounds 224–252 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 23

Chemical structures of compounds 253–273 isolated from mangrove species.

Figure 24

Chemical structures of compounds 274–289 isolated from mangrove species.