The origins of specialized pottery and diverse alcohol fermentation techniques in Early Neolithic China

Abstract

In China, pottery containers first appeared about 20000 cal. BP, and became diverse in form during the Early Neolithic (9000-7000 cal. BP), signaling the emergence of functionally specialized vessels. China is also well-known for its early development of alcohol production. However, few studies have focused on the connections between the two technologies. Based on the analysis of residues (starch, phytolith, and fungus) adhering to pottery from two Early Neolithic sites in north China, here we demonstrate that three material changes occurring in the Early Neolithic signal innovation of specialized alcoholic making known in north China: (i) the spread of cereal domestication (millet and rice), (ii) the emergence of dedicated pottery types, particularly globular jars as liquid storage vessels, and (iii) the development of cereal-based alcohol production with at least two fermentation methods: the use of cereal malts and the use of moldy grain and herbs (qu and caoqu) as starters. The latter method was arguably a unique invention initiated in China, and our findings account for the earliest known examples of this technique. The major ingredients include broomcorn millet, Triticeae grasses, Job's tears, rice, beans, snake gourd root, ginger, possible yam and lily, and other plants, some probably with medicinal properties (e.g., ginger). Alcoholic beverages made with these methods were named li, jiu, and chang in ancient texts, first recorded in the Shang oracle-bone inscriptions (ca. 3200 cal. BP); our findings have revealed a much deeper history of these diverse fermentation technologies in China.

Keywords: ancient fermentation methods; fungi; millet; phytoliths; starch granules.

Fig. 1.

Globular jars unearthed from major sites in early Neolithic China (9000–7000 cal. BP). 1, Dadiwan; 2, Guantaoyuan; 3, Baijia-Lingkou; 4, Jiahu; 5, Shuiquan; 6, Pengtoushan; 7, Kuahuqiao; 8, Xiaohuangshan; 9, Shangshan; 10, Houli.

Fig. 2.

LK and GTY starch types. 1, type I, Panicoideae, likely broomcorn millet; 2, type II, Job’s tears; 3, type III, Triticeae; 4, type IV, rice; 5 and 6, type V, snake gourd root; 7 and 8, type VI, ginger (LK and GTY); 9, ginger starch from Mijiaya for comparison; 10, type VII, USO, possibly yam; 11, type VII, USO, possibly lily; 12, type VIII, bean (1–4 and 7, LK; 5, 6, 8, and 10–12, GTY) [each starch is shown in DIC/bright-field (Left) and polarized (Right) views].

Fig. 3.

Damaged and gelatinized starches from LK and GTY pottery. 1, millet starch with central depression and broken edge; 2, millet starch with central depression and deep channels; 3, Triticeae starch with deep channels, pronounced lamellae, and pitting; 4, Triticeae starch with missing part (perhaps caused by grinding), central depression, and pitting; 5, UNID starch with central depression, pitting, and partial gelatinization; 6, fermented starch expanded with hollowed center and birefringent edge; 7, a cluster of Triticeae starch showing different stages of gelatinization, some with central depression (pointed with stemmed arrow), some flattened and expanded (pointed with nonstemmed arrow), and some still intact; 8, gelatinized starch stained with Congo red, showing red in bright-field light and golden glow in polarized light (1 and 2 from LK; others from GTY; each starch is shown in DIC and polarized views).

Fig. 4.

Phytoliths from LK and GTY. 1, cross (Job’s tears); 2, cross; 3, bilobate; 4, rondel; 5, rice double peak from husk; 6, foxtail millet husk; 7, broomcorn millet husk; 8, bulliform; 9, Asteraceae opaque perforated platelets; 10 and 11, hair cells; 12 and 13, raphides; 14, Paniceae husk; 15, skeleton of long cells from grass leaf (1–8, 13, and 14 from LK; others from GTY).

Fig. 5.

Molds and possible yeast cells from GTY compared with modern references. GTY samples: 1 and 2, vesicle/sporangia with stipe, without phialides/spores attached (POT2), compared with 9 and 14; 3, cf. sporangiophores growing out of rhizoids (POT1), compared with Rhizopus in SI Appendix, Fig. S4C; 4, hyphae (POT2), compared with 11; 5, cf. spores in germination (POT9); 6, a cluster of hyphae (POT9), compared with 10 and 11; 7, spores in chain (POT2), compared with chained conidia from A. oryzae (12); 8, cf. sporangiospores released from sporangia (POT9), compared with Rhizopus (15); 17 and 18, possible yeast cells in the initial budding process (POT2 and 9). Modern samples: 9, A. oryzae conidial head; 10, conidial head with a cluster of hyphae; 11, a group of conidiophores with vesicles; 12, conidia in chain; 13, Rhizopus sp. sporangia showing sporangiospores; 14, a group of sporangia with and without sporangiospores entangled with hyphae; 15, sporangia releasing small, ovoid sporangiospores; 16, sporangia without sporangiospores; 19, wild S. cerevisiae yeast in budding, Shimao millet beer; 20, cultured, domesticated S. cerevisiae yeast in various budding forms.