Review

. 2019 Jun 13;15(1):198.

doi: 10.1186/s12917-019-1943-4.

Control of paratuberculosis: who, why and how. A review of 48 countries

Richard Whittington¹, Karsten Donat^{2

3}, Maarten F Weber⁴, David Kelton⁵, Søren Saxmose Nielsen⁶, Suzanne Eisenberg⁷, Norma Arrigoni⁸, Ramon Juste⁹, Jose Luis Sáez¹⁰, Navneet Dhand¹¹, Annalisa Santi⁸, Anita Michel¹², Herman Barkema¹³, Petr Kralik¹⁴, Polychronis Kostoulas¹⁵, Lorna Citer¹⁶, Frank Griffin¹⁷, Rob Barwell¹⁸, Maria Aparecida Scatamburlo Moreira¹⁹, Iva Slana¹⁴, Heike Koehler²⁰, Shoor Vir Singh²¹, Han Sang Yoo²², Gilberto Chávez-Gris²³, Amador Goodridge²⁴, Matjaz Ocepek²⁵, Joseba Garrido²⁶, Karen Stevenson²⁷, Mike Collins²⁸, Bernardo Alonso²⁹, Karina Cirone³⁰, Fernando Paolicchi³⁰, Lawrence Gavey³¹, Md Tanvir Rahman³², Emmanuelle de Marchin³³, Willem Van Praet³⁴, Cathy Bauman⁵, Gilles Fecteau³⁵, Shawn McKenna³⁶, Miguel Salgado³⁷, Jorge Fernández-Silva³⁸, Radka Dziedzinska¹⁴, Gustavo Echeverría³⁹, Jaana Seppänen⁴⁰, Virginie Thibault⁴¹, Vala Fridriksdottir⁴², Abdolah Derakhshandeh⁴³, Masoud Haghkhah⁴³, Luigi Ruocco⁴⁴, Satoko Kawaji⁴⁵, Eiichi Momotani⁴⁶, Cord Heuer⁴⁷, Solis Norton⁴⁸, Simeon Cadmus⁴⁹, Angelika Agdestein⁵⁰, Annette Kampen⁵⁰, Joanna Szteyn⁵¹, Jenny Frössling⁵², Ebba Schwan⁵³, George Caldow⁵⁴, Sam Strain⁵⁵, Mike Carter⁵⁶, Scott Wells⁵⁷, Musso Munyeme⁵⁸, Robert Wolf⁵⁹, Ratna Gurung⁶⁰, Cristobal Verdugo³⁷, Christine Fourichon⁶¹, Takehisa Yamamoto⁴⁵, Sharada Thapaliya⁶², Elena Di Labio⁶³, Monaya Ekgatat⁶⁴, Andres Gil⁶⁵, Alvaro Nuñez Alesandre⁶⁶, José Piaggio⁶⁵, Alejandra Suanes⁶⁷, Jacobus H de Waard⁶⁸

Affiliations

¹ School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden, NSW, 2570, Australia. richard.whittington@sydney.edu.au.
² Animal Health Service, Thuringian Animal Diseases Fund, 07745, Jena, Germany.
³ Clinic for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Andrology with Veterinary Ambulance, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, 35392, Giessen, Germany.
⁴ GD Animal Health, 7400 AA, Deventer, The Netherlands.
⁵ Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
⁶ Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
⁷ Niedersächsische Tierseuchenkasse, 30169, Hannover, Germany.
⁸ Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, 29027, Podenzano, Italy.
⁹ Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario (SERIDA), 33300, Villaviciosa, Asturias, Spain.
¹⁰ Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Food and Environment, ES-28071, Madrid, Spain.
¹¹ School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden, NSW, 2570, Australia.
¹² Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa.
¹³ Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada.
¹⁴ Veterinary Research Institute, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic.
¹⁵ Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, 43100, Karditsa, Greece.
¹⁶ Animal Health Ireland, Carrick on Shannon, Co. Leitrim, N41 WN27, Republic of Ireland.
¹⁷ Disease Research Limited, Invermay Agricultural Centre, Mosgiel, 9092, New Zealand.
¹⁸ Animal Health Australia, Turner, ACT 2612, Australia.
¹⁹ Veterinary Department, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, 365700-900, Brazil.
²⁰ Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, 07743, Jena, Germany.
²¹ Deparment of Biotechnology, GLA University, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281 406, India.
²² Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, South Korea.
²³ Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, 76750 Tequisquiapan, Queretaro, Mexico.
²⁴ Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Servicios de Alta Tecnología, City of Knowledge, Panama City, 0843-01103, Panama.
²⁵ National Veterinary Institute, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
²⁶ Instituto Vasco de Investigacion y Desarrollo Agrario-NEIKER, 48160, Derio, Bizkaia, Spain.
²⁷ Moredun Research Institute, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK.
²⁸ School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, 53706-1102, USA.
²⁹ DILAB - SENASA, Martínez, 1640, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
³⁰ Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, 7620, Balcarce, Argentina.
³¹ Biosecurity Queensland, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Toowoomba, Queensland, 4350, Australia.
³² Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh.
³³ Regional Association for Animal Identification and Health, 5590, Ciney, Belgium.
³⁴ Animal Health Care Flanders, 2500, Lier, Belgium.
³⁵ Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, University of Montreal, Quebec, J2S 6Z9, Canada.
³⁶ Atlantic Veterinary College, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, C1A 4P3, Canada.
³⁷ Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, 5090000, Valdivia, Chile.
³⁸ Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Antioquia, 050034076, Colombia.
³⁹ Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis, Universidad Central del Ecuador, 17-03-100, Quito, Ecuador.
⁴⁰ Finnish Food Authority, Mustialankatu 3, 00790, Helsinki, Finland.
⁴¹ ANSES Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort and GDS France, CS 28440, 79024, Niort Cedex, France.
⁴² Institute for Experimental Pathology at Keldur, University of Iceland, IS-112, Reykjavík, Iceland.
⁴³ School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, 71441-69155, Iran.
⁴⁴ Ministry of Health, General Directorate of Animal Health and Veterinary Medicines, 00144, Rome, Italy.
⁴⁵ National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan.
⁴⁶ Comparative Medical Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan.
⁴⁷ School of Veterinary Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4441, New Zealand.
⁴⁸ DeerPRO, Dunedin, 9016, New Zealand.
⁴⁹ Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
⁵⁰ Norwegian Veterinary Institute, N-0106, Oslo, Norway.
⁵¹ Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-718, Olsztyn, Poland.
⁵² National Veterinary Institute, SE-751 89, Uppsala, Sweden.
⁵³ Swedish Farm and Animal Health, 62254, Romakloster, Sweden.
⁵⁴ Scotland's Rural College, Edinburgh, EH9 3JG, UK.
⁵⁵ Animal Health and Welfare Northern Ireland, Dungannon Enterprise Centre, Dungannon, BT71 6JT, UK.
⁵⁶ USDA-APHIS-Veterinary Services, Riverdale, MD, 20737, USA.
⁵⁷ College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA.
⁵⁸ School of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Zambia, 10101, Lusaka, Zambia.
⁵⁹ Fachabteilung Gesundheit und Pflegemanagement, 8010, Graz, Austria.
⁶⁰ National Centre for Animal Health, Serbithang, Bhutan.
⁶¹ Oniris - INRA, Department Farm Animal Health and Public Health, 44307, Nantes cedex 3, France.
⁶² Faculty of Animal Science, Veterinary Science and Fisheries, Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal.
⁶³ Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office, 3003, Bern, Switzerland.
⁶⁴ National Institute of Animal Health, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand.
⁶⁵ Facultad de Veterinaria, Lasplaces 1620, CP 11600, Montevideo, Uruguay.
⁶⁶ Ministry of Livestock Agriculture and Fisheries, CP 11400, Montevideo, Uruguay.
⁶⁷ Ministry of Livestock Agriculture and Fisheries of Uruguay, CP 11300, Montevideo, Uruguay.
⁶⁸ Servicio Autonomo Instituto de Biomedicina, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela.

PMID: 31196162
PMCID: PMC6567393
DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-1943-4

Review

Control of paratuberculosis: who, why and how. A review of 48 countries

Richard Whittington et al. BMC Vet Res. 2019.

. 2019 Jun 13;15(1):198.

doi: 10.1186/s12917-019-1943-4.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden, NSW, 2570, Australia. richard.whittington@sydney.edu.au.
² Animal Health Service, Thuringian Animal Diseases Fund, 07745, Jena, Germany.
³ Clinic for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Andrology with Veterinary Ambulance, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, 35392, Giessen, Germany.
⁴ GD Animal Health, 7400 AA, Deventer, The Netherlands.
⁵ Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
⁶ Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-1870, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
⁷ Niedersächsische Tierseuchenkasse, 30169, Hannover, Germany.
⁸ Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, 29027, Podenzano, Italy.
⁹ Servicio Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario (SERIDA), 33300, Villaviciosa, Asturias, Spain.
¹⁰ Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Food and Environment, ES-28071, Madrid, Spain.
¹¹ School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden, NSW, 2570, Australia.
¹² Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa.
¹³ Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada.
¹⁴ Veterinary Research Institute, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic.
¹⁵ Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, 43100, Karditsa, Greece.
¹⁶ Animal Health Ireland, Carrick on Shannon, Co. Leitrim, N41 WN27, Republic of Ireland.
¹⁷ Disease Research Limited, Invermay Agricultural Centre, Mosgiel, 9092, New Zealand.
¹⁸ Animal Health Australia, Turner, ACT 2612, Australia.
¹⁹ Veterinary Department, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, 365700-900, Brazil.
²⁰ Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, 07743, Jena, Germany.
²¹ Deparment of Biotechnology, GLA University, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 281 406, India.
²² Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, South Korea.
²³ Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, 76750 Tequisquiapan, Queretaro, Mexico.
²⁴ Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Servicios de Alta Tecnología, City of Knowledge, Panama City, 0843-01103, Panama.
²⁵ National Veterinary Institute, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
²⁶ Instituto Vasco de Investigacion y Desarrollo Agrario-NEIKER, 48160, Derio, Bizkaia, Spain.
²⁷ Moredun Research Institute, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK.
²⁸ School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, 53706-1102, USA.
²⁹ DILAB - SENASA, Martínez, 1640, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
³⁰ Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, 7620, Balcarce, Argentina.
³¹ Biosecurity Queensland, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Toowoomba, Queensland, 4350, Australia.
³² Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh.
³³ Regional Association for Animal Identification and Health, 5590, Ciney, Belgium.
³⁴ Animal Health Care Flanders, 2500, Lier, Belgium.
³⁵ Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, University of Montreal, Quebec, J2S 6Z9, Canada.
³⁶ Atlantic Veterinary College, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, C1A 4P3, Canada.
³⁷ Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, 5090000, Valdivia, Chile.
³⁸ Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Antioquia, 050034076, Colombia.
³⁹ Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis, Universidad Central del Ecuador, 17-03-100, Quito, Ecuador.
⁴⁰ Finnish Food Authority, Mustialankatu 3, 00790, Helsinki, Finland.
⁴¹ ANSES Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort and GDS France, CS 28440, 79024, Niort Cedex, France.
⁴² Institute for Experimental Pathology at Keldur, University of Iceland, IS-112, Reykjavík, Iceland.
⁴³ School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, 71441-69155, Iran.
⁴⁴ Ministry of Health, General Directorate of Animal Health and Veterinary Medicines, 00144, Rome, Italy.
⁴⁵ National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan.
⁴⁶ Comparative Medical Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan.
⁴⁷ School of Veterinary Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4441, New Zealand.
⁴⁸ DeerPRO, Dunedin, 9016, New Zealand.
⁴⁹ Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
⁵⁰ Norwegian Veterinary Institute, N-0106, Oslo, Norway.
⁵¹ Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-718, Olsztyn, Poland.
⁵² National Veterinary Institute, SE-751 89, Uppsala, Sweden.
⁵³ Swedish Farm and Animal Health, 62254, Romakloster, Sweden.
⁵⁴ Scotland's Rural College, Edinburgh, EH9 3JG, UK.
⁵⁵ Animal Health and Welfare Northern Ireland, Dungannon Enterprise Centre, Dungannon, BT71 6JT, UK.
⁵⁶ USDA-APHIS-Veterinary Services, Riverdale, MD, 20737, USA.
⁵⁷ College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA.
⁵⁸ School of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Zambia, 10101, Lusaka, Zambia.
⁵⁹ Fachabteilung Gesundheit und Pflegemanagement, 8010, Graz, Austria.
⁶⁰ National Centre for Animal Health, Serbithang, Bhutan.
⁶¹ Oniris - INRA, Department Farm Animal Health and Public Health, 44307, Nantes cedex 3, France.
⁶² Faculty of Animal Science, Veterinary Science and Fisheries, Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal.
⁶³ Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office, 3003, Bern, Switzerland.
⁶⁴ National Institute of Animal Health, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand.
⁶⁵ Facultad de Veterinaria, Lasplaces 1620, CP 11600, Montevideo, Uruguay.
⁶⁶ Ministry of Livestock Agriculture and Fisheries, CP 11400, Montevideo, Uruguay.
⁶⁷ Ministry of Livestock Agriculture and Fisheries of Uruguay, CP 11300, Montevideo, Uruguay.
⁶⁸ Servicio Autonomo Instituto de Biomedicina, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela.

PMID: 31196162
PMCID: PMC6567393
DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-1943-4

Abstract

Paratuberculosis, a chronic disease affecting ruminant livestock, is caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). It has direct and indirect economic costs, impacts animal welfare and arouses public health concerns. In a survey of 48 countries we found paratuberculosis to be very common in livestock. In about half the countries more than 20% of herds and flocks were infected with MAP. Most countries had large ruminant populations (millions), several types of farmed ruminants, multiple husbandry systems and tens of thousands of individual farms, creating challenges for disease control. In addition, numerous species of free-living wildlife were infected. Paratuberculosis was notifiable in most countries, but formal control programs were present in only 22 countries. Generally, these were the more highly developed countries with advanced veterinary services. Of the countries without a formal control program for paratuberculosis, 76% were in South and Central America, Asia and Africa while 20% were in Europe. Control programs were justified most commonly on animal health grounds, but protecting market access and public health were other factors. Prevalence reduction was the major objective in most countries, but Norway and Sweden aimed to eradicate the disease, so surveillance and response were their major objectives. Government funding was involved in about two thirds of countries, but operations tended to be funded by farmers and their organizations and not by government alone. The majority of countries (60%) had voluntary control programs. Generally, programs were supported by incentives for joining, financial compensation and/or penalties for non-participation. Performance indicators, structure, leadership, practices and tools used in control programs are also presented. Securing funding for long-term control activities was a widespread problem. Control programs were reported to be successful in 16 (73%) of the 22 countries. Recommendations are made for future control programs, including a primary goal of establishing an international code for paratuberculosis, leading to universal acknowledgment of the principles and methods of control in relation to endemic and transboundary disease. An holistic approach across all ruminant livestock industries and long-term commitment is required for control of paratuberculosis.

Keywords: Camelid; Cattle; Control; Deer; Goat; Paratuberculosis; Prevalence; Review; Sheep; Wildlife.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Figures

**Fig. 1**
Countries represented in this study

**Fig. 2**
Countries represented in this study that had a control program for paratuberculosis between 2012 and 2018

**Fig. 3**
Inclusion of advice on paratuberculosis in herd health programs, and availability of veterinary advice for individual animals in countries with and without a control program for paratuberculosis

See this image and copyright information in PMC

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Control of paratuberculosis: who, why and how. A review of 48 countries

Affiliations

Control of paratuberculosis: who, why and how. A review of 48 countries

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