Positive and negative conditioning in the neonatal brain

Abstract

Brain injury in the perinatal period occurs in many clinical settings, e.g. hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) in term infants, neonatal stroke, encephalopathy of prematurity, and infections. These insults often result in life-long disabilities including cerebral palsy, cognitive deficits, visual dysfunction, hearing impairments, and epilepsy. However, the success of clinical implementation of a broad array of potential neuroprotective strategies tested experimentally has been limited with the exception of therapeutic hypothermia (TH) used within hours of birth in term human babies with mild to moderate HIE. There is an extensive search for adjuvant therapeutic approaches to enhance the outcomes. One strategy is to modify susceptibility in the developing CNS by means of preconditioning or postconditioning using sublethal stress. The pre-clinical and clinical literature has shown that CNS immaturity at the time of ischemic insult plays a central role in the response to injury. Thus, better understanding of the molecular regulation of the endogenous vulnerability of the immature brain is needed. Further, the use of sublethal stressors of different origin may help shed light on mechanistic similarities and distinctions beween conditioning strategies. In this review we discuss the mechanisms of protection that are achieved by an interplay of changes on the systemic level and brain level, and via changes of intracellular and mitochondrial signaling. We also discuss the barriers to improving our understanding of how brain immaturity and the type of insult-hypoxic, ischemic or inflammatory-affect the efficacy of conditioning efforts in the immature brain.

Keywords: blood-brain barrier; hypoxia-ischemia; immune system; mitochondria; postconditining; preconditioning; stroke.

Figure 1.

Intracellular mechanisms of preconditioning in neonatal brain. Abbreviations: Activator protein-1 (AP-1); AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK); cellular inhibitor of apoptosis-1 (cIAP1); cyclic AMP response-element binding-protein (CREB); early growth response 1 (EGR1); erythropoietin (EPO); hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α); Janus kinase 2 (JAK2); mitochondrial permeabilization (MP); nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD); nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (Nampt); nitric oxide synthase (NOS); nitric oxide (NO); nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB); peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1α); phosphokinase B (PKB)/AKT; phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K); phosphokinase C (PKC); reactive oxygen species (ROS); signal transducer and activator of transcription (STATs) specificity protein 1 (SP1); vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).