The Distal Spine: Normal Embryogenesis and Derangements Leading to Malformation

Abstract

The spine and spinal cord are composed of multiple segments initiated by different embryologic mechanisms and advanced under different systems of control. In humans, the upper central nervous system is formed by primary neurulation, the lower by secondary neurulation, and the intervening segment by junctional neurulation. This article focuses on the distal spine and spinal cord to address their embryogenesis and the molecular derangements that lead to some distal spinal malformations.

Keywords: Axis extension; Junctional neurulation; Somitogenesis; Spinal column; Spinal cord; Spinal embryogenesis; Spinal malformations.