The HIV Reservoir in Monocytes and Macrophages

Abstract

In people living with HIV (PLWH) who are failing or unable to access combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), monocytes and macrophages are important drivers of pathogenesis and progression to AIDS. The relevance of the monocyte/macrophage reservoir in PLWH receiving cART is debatable as in vivo evidence for infected cells is limited and suggests the reservoir is small. Macrophages were assumed to have a moderate life span and lack self-renewing potential, but recent discoveries challenge this dogma and suggest a potentially important role of these cells as long-lived HIV reservoirs. This, combined with new HIV infection animal models, has led to a resurgence of interest in monocyte/macrophage reservoirs. Infection of non-human primates with myeloid-tropic SIV implicates monocyte/macrophage activation and infection in the brain with neurocognitive disorders, and infection of myeloid-only humanized mouse models are consistent with the potential of the monocyte/macrophage reservoir to sustain infection and be a source of rebound viremia following cART cessation. An increased resistance to HIV-induced cytopathic effects and a reduced susceptibility to some antiretroviral drugs implies macrophages may be relevant to residual replication under cART and to rebound viremia. With a reappraisal of monocyte circulation dynamics, and the development of techniques to differentiate between self-renewing tissue-resident, and monocyte-derived macrophages in different tissues, a new framework exists to contextualize and evaluate the significance and relevance of the monocyte/macrophage HIV reservoir. In this review, we discuss recent developments in monocyte and macrophage biology and appraise current and emerging techniques to quantify the reservoir. We discuss how this knowledge influences our evaluation of the myeloid HIV reservoir, the implications for HIV pathogenesis in both viremic and virologically-suppressed PLWH and the need to address the myeloid reservoir in future treatment and cure strategies.

Keywords: DNAscope; HIV; animal models; monocytes/macrophages; reservoir.

Figure 1

Establishment and maintenance of the HIV myeloid reservoir. (A) CD34+ progenitors—hematopoietic stem cells (HSC), multipotent progenitor (MPP), committed myeloid progenitors (CMP), granulo-monocyte progenitors (GMP), and committed monocyte progenitors—in the bone marrow may become infected with HIV then migrate and differentiate into monocytes in circulation (Bottom panel). Classical monocytes differentiate into intermediate monocytes and migrate into tissues such as the spleen, where they may become infected with HIV and re-enter the circulation (center panel). Circulating HIV-infected monocytes can enter anatomical sanctuary sites such as the brain, differentiate into macrophages (ϕ) and thus seed tissue reservoirs (Top panel). (B) HIV macrophage reservoirs in tissues can be maintained by infiltrating infected monocytes, de novo infection of monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) within tissues, and by homeostatic self-renewal of infected tissue-resident macrophages. (C) Various endogenous and exogenous factors may influence the state of HIV infection within macrophages. LRAs, latency reversing agents; LIAs, latency inducing agents.