Growing a new human kidney

Abstract

There are 3 reasons to generate a new human kidney. The first is to learn more about the biology of the developing and mature organ. The second is to generate tissues with which to model congenital and acquired kidney diseases. In particular, growing human kidneys in this manner ultimately should help us understand the mechanisms of common chronic kidney diseases such as diabetic nephropathy and others featuring fibrosis, as well as nephrotoxicity. The third reason is to provide functional kidney tissues that can be used directly in regenerative medicine therapies. The second and third reasons to grow new human kidneys are especially compelling given the millions of persons worldwide whose lives depend on a functioning kidney transplant or long-term dialysis, as well as those with end-stage renal disease who die prematurely because they are unable to access these treatments. As shown in this review, the aim to create healthy human kidney tissues has been partially realized. Moreover, the technology shows promise in terms of modeling genetic disease. In contrast, barely the first steps have been taken toward modeling nongenetic chronic kidney diseases or using newly grown human kidney tissue for regenerative medicine therapies.

Keywords: disease; gene; mesonephros; metanephros; organoid; regeneration; stem cell.

Figure 1

Cell lineages in the embryonic metanephros. The frame on the left shows the histology of the metanephros at its inception, with a central ureteric bud surrounded by metanephric mesenchyme. Bar = 50 μm. The frame on the right depicts mutual induction between these compartments. The ureteric bud differentiates into the urothelial stalk of the ureter and the arborizing collecting ducts within the kidney. The metanephric mesenchyme undergoes mesenchymal to epithelial transition to form nephrons, comprising glomerular and tubule epithelia, whereas other cells in the mesenchymal compartment will form interstitial cells and endothelia. To optimize viewing of this image, please see the online version of this article at www.kidney-international.org.

Figure 2

Scheme showing how pluripotent stem cell (PSC) technology can be used to generate new kidney tissues. Human PSCs can be generated directly from early human embryos (arrow 1) or by generating induced PSCs from mature blood, skin, or urine cells (arrow 2). Once generated, PSCs can be maintained so they undergo self-renewal (arrow 3), or they can be induced to differentiate in culture (arrow 4) into intermediate mesoderm-like cells that then begin to express molecules (green) found in the developing kidney. These kidney precursor cells can be maintained in 2-dimensional culture (arrow 5) where they form sometimes branching tubule-like structures (blue) and primitive nephrons (pink) over a few weeks. Alternatively, the PSC-derived kidney precursor cells can be dissociated and plated in 3-dimensional masses (arrow 6) that differentiate to form tubules (blue) and avascular glomeruli (pink). These organoids contain endothelia (red) between tubules. A third option is to implant the kidney precursor cells into immune-deficient mice (arrow 7), where the human cells survive subcutaneously at least for several months and form vascularized glomeruli (red inside pink structures) perfused with blood. These glomeruli contain more mature glomerular basement membranes than glomeruli that differentiate in culture. A similar result can be obtained after implanting PSC-derived kidney organoids under the kidney capsule inside immune-deficient mice (arrow 8).

Figure 3

A teratoma and a mini kidney formed in vivo. The upper frame shows the histology of a teratoma, a type of tumor, that grew after implanting undifferentiated human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) under the skin of an immunocompromised mouse. Note muscle (m) and neural tissue (n). The lower frame shows an example of a mini kidney that formed after subcutaneous implantation of hPSC-derived kidney precursors. Note that the teratoma contains a mixture of tissues, whereas the mini kidney contains nephron-like structures, with some off-target cartilage (asterisk). Bar = 0.2 mm. Images are adapted from Bantounas I, Ranjzad P, Tengku F, et al. Generation of functioning nephrons by implanting human pluripotent stem cell-derived kidney progenitors. Stem Cell Reports. 2018;10:766–779 via Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). To optimize viewing of this image, please see the online version of this article at www.kidney-international.org.

Figure 4

Glomeruli formed in cultured human pluripotent stem cell–derived human organoids are immature. Glomerular tufts (g) immunostain (brown) for the podocyte marker synaptopodin. Glomeruli do not immunostain for collagen α3 (IV) or vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA). Although capillaries that immunostain for platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM) are detected around the glomerulus (the asterisk indicates the lumen of one such vessel), they are rarely found inside the tuft. Nuclei in the collagen α3 (IV) frame are counterstained with hematoxylin. Bar = 50 μm. Images are adapted from Bantounas I, Ranjzad P, Tengku F, et al. Generation of functioning nephrons by implanting human pluripotent stem cell-derived kidney progenitors. Stem Cell Reports. 2018;10:766–779 via Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). To optimize viewing of this image, please see the online version of this article at www.kidney-international.org.

Figure 5

Mature glomeruli formed in vivo after implanting human pluripotent stem cell–derived kidney precursor cells. Glomerular tufts immunostain (brown) for the podocyte marker synaptopodin. Glomeruli immunostain for collagen α3 (IV) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA). Capillaries that immunostain for platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM) are detected inside the glomerular tuft. Nuclei in the collagen α3 (IV) and PECAM frames are counterstained with hematoxylin. Bar = 50 μm. Images are adapted from Bantounas I, Ranjzad P, Tengku F, et al. Generation of functioning nephrons by implanting human pluripotent stem cell-derived kidney progenitors. Stem Cell Reports. 2018;10:766–779 via Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). To optimize viewing of this image, please see the online version of this article at www.kidney-international.org.

Figure 6

Comparison of a human pluripotent stem cell (PSC)–derived kidney organoid with a native mature kidney. Note the PSC-derived mini kidney is only 1 cm long. Around 2000 of these would constitute a similar volume as a native adult human kidney. Note also that the organoid lacks a renal artery and vein and it has no renal pelvis or ureter, all of which are present in the mature native kidney. The image on the left is adapted from Bantounas I, Ranjzad P, Tengku F, et al. Generation of functioning nephrons by implanting human pluripotent stem cell-derived kidney progenitors. Stem Cell Reports. 2018;10:766–779 via Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). To optimize viewing of this image, please see the online version of this article at www.kidney-international.org.