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Review
. 2019 Jul 31;7(7):CD006936.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006936.pub4.

Motivational interviewing for smoking cessation

Nicola Lindson  1 , Tom P Thompson, Anne Ferrey, Jeffrey D Lambert, Paul Aveyard
Affiliations
Review

Motivational interviewing for smoking cessation

Nicola Lindson et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a directive patient-centred style of counselling, designed to help people to explore and resolve ambivalence about behaviour change. It was developed as a treatment for alcohol abuse, but may help people to a make a successful attempt to stop smoking.

Objectives: To evaluate the efficacy of MI for smoking cessation compared with no treatment, in addition to another form of smoking cessation treatment, and compared with other types of smoking cessation treatment. We also investigated whether more intensive MI is more effective than less intensive MI for smoking cessation.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group Specialised Register for studies using the term motivat* NEAR2 (interview* OR enhanc* OR session* OR counsel* OR practi* OR behav*) in the title or abstract, or motivation* as a keyword. We also searched trial registries to identify unpublished studies. Date of the most recent search: August 2018.

Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials in which MI or its variants were offered to smokers to assist smoking cessation. We excluded trials that did not assess cessation as an outcome, with follow-up less than six months, and with additional non-MI intervention components not matched between arms. We excluded trials in pregnant women as these are covered elsewhere.

Data collection and analysis: We followed standard Cochrane methods. Smoking cessation was measured after at least six months, using the most rigorous definition available, on an intention-to-treat basis. We calculated risk ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for smoking cessation for each study, where possible. We grouped eligible studies according to the type of comparison. We carried out meta-analyses where appropriate, using Mantel-Haenszel random-effects models. We extracted data on mental health outcomes and quality of life and summarised these narratively.

Main results: We identified 37 eligible studies involving over 15,000 participants who smoked tobacco. The majority of studies recruited participants with particular characteristics, often from groups of people who are less likely to seek support to stop smoking than the general population. Although a few studies recruited participants who intended to stop smoking soon or had no intentions to quit, most recruited a population without regard to their intention to quit. MI was conducted in one to 12 sessions, with the total duration of MI ranging from five to 315 minutes across studies. We judged four of the 37 studies to be at low risk of bias, and 11 to be at high risk, but restricting the analysis only to those studies at low or unclear risk did not significantly alter results, apart from in one case - our analysis comparing higher to lower intensity MI.We found low-certainty evidence, limited by risk of bias and imprecision, comparing the effect of MI to no treatment for smoking cessation (RR = 0.84, 95% CI 0.63 to 1.12; I2 = 0%; adjusted N = 684). One study was excluded from this analysis as the participants recruited (incarcerated men) were not comparable to the other participants included in the analysis, resulting in substantial statistical heterogeneity when all studies were pooled (I2 = 87%). Enhancing existing smoking cessation support with additional MI, compared with existing support alone, gave an RR of 1.07 (95% CI 0.85 to 1.36; adjusted N = 4167; I2 = 47%), and MI compared with other forms of smoking cessation support gave an RR of 1.24 (95% CI 0.91 to 1.69; I2 = 54%; N = 5192). We judged both of these estimates to be of low certainty due to heterogeneity and imprecision. Low-certainty evidence detected a benefit of higher intensity MI when compared with lower intensity MI (RR 1.23, 95% CI 1.11 to 1.37; adjusted N = 5620; I2 = 0%). The evidence was limited because three of the five studies in this comparison were at risk of bias. Excluding them gave an RR of 1.00 (95% CI 0.65 to 1.54; I2 = n/a; N = 482), changing the interpretation of the results.Mental health and quality of life outcomes were reported in only one study, providing little evidence on whether MI improves mental well-being.

Authors' conclusions: There is insufficient evidence to show whether or not MI helps people to stop smoking compared with no intervention, as an addition to other types of behavioural support for smoking cessation, or compared with other types of behavioural support for smoking cessation. It is also unclear whether more intensive MI is more effective than less intensive MI. All estimates of treatment effect were of low certainty because of concerns about bias in the trials, imprecision and inconsistency. Consequently, future trials are likely to change these conclusions. There is almost no evidence on whether MI for smoking cessation improves mental well-being.

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Conflict of interest statement

AF is employed by the University of Oxford to work as a Senior Researcher in the Health Behaviours group on projects related to nicotine consumption. Anne has been the recipient of a grant funded by Cancer Research UK to explore clinician attitudes towards electronic cigarettes. None of this is deemed a conflict of interest.

JL has no known conflicts of interest.

NL is employed by the University of Oxford to work as Managing Editor for the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group (TAG). TAG's infrastructure is funded by the NIHR. Nicola has received payment for lectures on systematic review methodology, and has been an applicant on project funding to carry out priority setting and systematic reviews in the area of tobacco control (NIHR funded). None of this is deemed a conflict of interest.

PA has no known conflicts of interest.

TT has no known conflicts of interest.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram for this update
2
2
Methodological quality summary: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item for each included study.
3
3
Funnel plot of comparison: 2 MI in addition to other smoking cessation treatment, outcome: 2.1 cessation.
4
4
Funnel plot of comparison: 3 MI versus other SC intervention, outcome: 3.1 cessation.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 MI versus no treatment, Outcome 1 All studies: cessation.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 MI versus no treatment, Outcome 2 All studies: cessation ‐ Naik 2014 removed.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 MI in addition to other SC treatment versus that SC treatment alone, Outcome 1 All studies: cessation.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 MI in addition to other SC treatment versus that SC treatment alone, Outcome 2 Intensity subgroups: cessation.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 MI in addition to other SC treatment versus that SC treatment alone, Outcome 3 Provider subgroups: cessation.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 MI in addition to other SC treatment versus that SC treatment alone, Outcome 4 Counselling modality subgroups: cessation.
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 MI in addition to other SC treatment versus that SC treatment alone, Outcome 5 Fidelity subgroups: cessation.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 MI in addition to other SC treatment versus that SC treatment alone, Outcome 6 Baseline motivation subgroups: cessation.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 MI versus other SC intervention, Outcome 1 All studies: cessation.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 MI versus other SC intervention, Outcome 2 Intensity subgroups: cessation.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 MI versus other SC intervention, Outcome 3 Age subgroups: cessation.
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 MI versus other SC intervention, Outcome 4 Provider subgroups: cessation.
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3 MI versus other SC intervention, Outcome 5 Fidelity monitoring subgroups: cessation.
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3 MI versus other SC intervention, Outcome 6 Baseline motivation subgroups: cessation.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Intensity of MI, Outcome 1 All studies: cessation.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Intensity of MI, Outcome 2 Counsellor modality subgroups: cessation.
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Intensity of MI, Outcome 3 Fidelity monitoring subgroups: cessation.
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4 Intensity of MI, Outcome 4 Baseline motivation subgroups: cessation.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

  • doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006936.pub3

References

References to studies included in this review

Ahluwalia 2006 {published data only}
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Catley 2016 {published data only}
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Colby 2005 {published data only}
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Colby 2012 {published data only}
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Cook 2016 {published data only}
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Davis 2011 {published data only}
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De Azevedo 2010 {published data only}
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Demétrio Faustino‐Silva 2018 {published data only}
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Ellerbeck 2009 {published data only}
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Helstrom 2007 {published data only}
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Hollis 2007 {published data only}
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Kelly 2006 {published data only}
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Lewis 1998 {published data only}
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Lloyd‐Richardson 2009 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
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Louwagie 2014 {published data only}
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Marshall 2016 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
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Matuszewski 2018 {published data only}
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McClure 2005 {published data only}
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Naik 2014 {published and unpublished data}
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NCT02645838 {published data only}
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Okuyemi 2013 {published data only}
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Rohsenow 2014 {published data only}
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Rohsenow 2015 {published data only}
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Sherman 2016 {published data only}
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Soria 2006 {published data only}
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Stein 2006 {published data only}
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Tevyaw 2009 {published data only}
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Vidrine 2019 {published data only}
    1. Daly AT, Deshmukh AA, Vidrine DJ, Prokhorov AV, Frank SG, Tahay PD, et al. Cost‐effectiveness analysis of smoking cessation interventions using cell phones in a low‐income population. Tobacco Control 2019;28(1):88‐94. [DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-054229] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
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    1. Vidrine DJ, Fletcher FE, Danysh HE, Marani S, Vidrine JI, Cantor SB, et al. A randomized controlled trial to assess the efficacy of an interactive mobile messaging intervention for underserved smokers: project ACTION. BMC Public Health 2012;12:696. - PMC - PubMed
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Woodruff 2007 {published data only}
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Wu 2009 {published data only}
    1. Wu D, Ma GX, Zhou K, Zhou D, Liu A, Poon AN. The effect of a culturally tailored smoking cessation for Chinese American smokers. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2009;11(12):1448‐57. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

ACTRN12609000627257 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12609000627257. Using admissions to a "smokefree" hospital to promote cessation of smoking in mental health inpatients versus a representation of the general population [The effect of a quit smoking program on the intention of mental health inpatients versus orthopaedic, plastic surgery and neurosurgery inpatients (as representative of the general population) to adopt smoking cessation strategies]. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=308251 (first received 20 Jul 2009).
ACTRN12609001039279 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12609001039279. Healthy lifestyle intervention for cardiovascular disease risk reduction among smokers with psychotic disorders [In smokers with psychotic disorders, is an intervention consisting of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) and motivational interviewing and cognitive‐behaviour therapy (MICBT) and contingency management (CM) as or more effective as a one‐session intervention followed by NRT plus brief contact for reduction of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and smoking cessation?]. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?ACTRN=12609001039279 (first received 17 Jul 2009).
ACTRN12612000016831 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12612000016831. A secondary prevention patient centred model for smoking cessation [A pilot study of a nurse‐led evidence based smoking cessation program in smokers with cardiovascular disease to develop a secondary prevention model of care for smoking cessation]. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?ACTRN=12612000016831 (first received 21 Dec 2011).
ACTRN12614000876695 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12614000876695. Improving radiotherapy outcomes with smoking cessation: feasibility trial in head and neck cancer patients [Improving radiotherapy outcomes in head and neck cancer patients: a preliminary comparison of smoking cessation intervention ‘Varenicline plus support’ with ‘treatment as usual’]. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=366605 (first received 7 Jul 2014).
ACTRN12614001147673 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12614001147673. Smoke‐free recovery from trauma surgery: a pilot trial of an online smoking cessation programme for trauma surgery patients [A pilot trial of an online smoking cessation program investigating uptake and usage of an online smoking cessation programme]. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=366829 (first received 14 Oct 2014).
ACTRN12616000314426 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12616000314426. Efficacy of a pre‐release group‐based abstinence program on extending prisoners' smoking abstinence post release from smoke‐free prisons in Queensland [Efficacy of a pre‐release group‐based abstinence program on extending prisoners' smoking abstinence post release from smoke‐free prisons in Queensland: a randomised controlled trial]. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=370213 (first received 25 Feb 2016).
Aertsen Van Der Kuip 2006 {published data only}
    1. Aertsen‐Van Der Kuip MSA, Besselink RM, Vlugt MJ, Peters E, Fouwels AJ, Wollersheim H, et al. Successful motivational interviewing for smoking cessation in a secondary cardiovascular prevention clinic. European Heart Journal 2006;27(Suppl 1):165.
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    1. Auer R, Gencer B, Tango R, Nanchen D, Matter CM, Luscher TF, et al. Uptake and efficacy of a systematic intensive smoking cessation intervention using motivational interviewing for smokers hospitalised for an acute coronary syndrome: a multicentre before‐after study with parallel group comparisons. BMJ Open 2016;6(9):e011520. [DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011520] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Baker 2006 {published data only}
    1. Baker A, Richmond R, Haile M, Lewin TJ, Carr VJ, Taylor RL, et al. A randomized controlled trial of a smoking cessation intervention among people with a psychotic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 2006;163(11):1934‐42. [DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.11.1934] - DOI - PubMed
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    1. Bernstein SL, Dziura J, Weiss J, Miller T, Vickerman KA, Grau LE, et al. Tobacco dependence treatment in the emergency department: a randomized trial using the Multiphase Optimization Strategy. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2018;66:1‐8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2017.12.016] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
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    1. Bonevski B, Twyman L, Paul C, D'Este C, West R, Siahpush M, et al. Smoking cessation intervention delivered by social service organisations for a diverse population of Australian disadvantaged smokers: a pragmatic randomised controlled trial. Preventive Medicine 2018;112:38‐44. - PubMed
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    1. Borrelli B, Novak S, Hecht J, Emmons K, Papandonatos G, Abrams D. Home health care nurses as a new channel for smoking cessation treatment: outcomes from project CARES (Community‐nurse Assisted Research and Education on Smoking). Preventive Medicine 2005;41(5‐6):815‐21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2005.08.004] - DOI - PubMed
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    1. Borrelli B, McQuaid EL, Tooley EM, Busch AM, Hammond SK, Becker B, et al. Motivating parents of kids with asthma to quit smoking: the effect of the teachable moment and increasing intervention intensity using a longitudinal randomized trial design. Addiction 2016;111(9):1646‐55. [DOI: 10.1111/add.13389] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
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    1. Borrelli B, Endrighi R, Hammond SK, Dunsiger S. Smokers who are unmotivated to quit and have a child with asthma are more likely to quit with intensive motivational interviewing and repeated biomarker feedback CNO ‐ CN‐01430706. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2017;85(11):1019‐28. [DOI: 10.1037/ccp0000238] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
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    1. Carpenter MJ, Hughes JR, Solomon LJ, Callas PW. Both smoking reduction with nicotine replacement therapy and motivational advice increase future cessation among smokers unmotivated to quit. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2004;72(3):371‐81. [DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.371] - DOI - PubMed
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    1. Cigrang JA, Severson HH, Peterson AL. Pilot evaluation of a population‐based health intervention for reducing use of smokeless tobacco. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2002;4(1):127‐31. [DOI: 10.1080/14622200110101603] - DOI - PubMed
Collicott 2001 {published data only}
    1. Collicott SF. Increasing readiness to change among smokers in a primary care setting. Dissertation Abstracts International 2001;61:6699.
Cornuz 2002 {published data only}
    1. Cornuz J, Humair JP, Seematter L, Stoianov R, Melle G, Stalder H, et al. Efficacy of resident training in smoking cessation: a randomized, controlled trial of a program based on application of behavioral theory and practice with standardized patients. Annals of Internal Medicine 2002;136(6):429‐37. - PubMed
Curry 2003 {published data only}
    1. Curry SJ, Ludman EJ, Graham E, Stout J, Grothaus L, Lozano P. Pediatric‐based smoking cessation intervention for low‐income women: a randomized trial. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2003;157(3):295‐302. - PubMed
Dornelas 2000 {published data only}
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    1. Emmons KM, Hammond SK, Fava J, Velicer W, Evans J, Monroe A. The impact of motivational interviewing on passive smoke reduction in low income households with young children. 11th World Conference on Tobacco or Health; 2000 August 6‐11; Chicago. 2000:142.
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    1. Ershoff DH, Quinn VP, Boyd NR, Stern J, Gregory M, Wirtschafter D. The Kaiser Permanente prenatal smoking‐cessation trial: when more isn't better, what is enough?. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1999;17(3):161‐8. - PubMed
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    1. George TP, Ziedonis DM, Feingold A, Pepper WT, Satterburg CA, Winkel J, et al. Nicotine transdermal patch and atypical antipsychotic medications for smoking cessation in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2000;157(11):1835‐42. [DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.11.1835] - DOI - PubMed
Glasgow 2000 {published data only}
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    1. Ha YS, Choi YH. Effectiveness of the self‐determination theory based a motivational interviewing YOU‐TURN program for smoking cessation among adolescents. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing 2015;45(3):347‐56. [DOI: 10.4040/jkan.2015.45.3.347] - DOI - PubMed
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    1. Haas JS, Linder JA, Park ER, Gonzalez I, Rigotti NA, Klinger EV, et al. Proactive tobacco cessation outreach to smokers of low socioeconomic status: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine 2015;175(2):218‐26. [DOI: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.6674] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Hennrikus 2002 {published data only}
    1. Hennrikus DJ, Jeffery RW, Lando HA, Murray DM, Brelje K, Davidann B, et al. The SUCCESS project: the effect of program format and incentives on participation and cessation in worksite smoking cessation programs. American Journal of Public Health 2002;92(2):274‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Hennrikus 2005 {published data only}
    1. Hennrikus DJ, Lando HA, McCarty MC, Klevan D, Holtan N, Huebsch JA, et al. The TEAM project: the effectiveness of smoking cessation interventions with hospital patients. Preventive Medicine 2005;40(3):249‐58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.05.030] - DOI - PubMed
Hokanson 2006 {published data only}
    1. Hokanson JM, Anderson RL, Hennrikus DJ, Lando HA, Kendall DM. Integrated tobacco cessation counseling in a diabetes self‐management training program: a randomized trial of diabetes and reduction of tobacco. Diabetes Educator 2006;32(4):562‐70. [DOI: 10.1177/0145721706289914] - DOI - PubMed
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    1. Horn K, Dino G, Hamilton C, Noerachmanto N. Efficacy of an emergency department‐based motivational teenage smoking intervention. Preventing Chronic Disease 2007;4(1):A08. - PMC - PubMed
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Huang 2015 {published data only}
    1. Huang FF, Jiao NN, Zhang LY, Lei Y, Zhang JP. Effects of a family‐assisted smoking cessation intervention based on motivational interviewing among low‐motivated smokers in China. Patient Education and Counseling 2015;98(8):984‐90. [DOI: ] - PubMed
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    1. Hughes SC, Corcos I, Hovell M, Hofstetter CR. Feasibility pilot of a randomized faith‐based intervention to reduce secondhand smoke exposure among Korean Americans. Preventing Chronic Disease 2017;14:E19. [DOI: 10.5888/pcd14.160549] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
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Idrisov 2013 {published data only}
    1. Idrisov B, Sun P, Akhmadeeva L, Arpawong TE, Kukhareva P, Sussman S. Immediate and six‐month effects of Project EX Russia: a smoking cessation intervention pilot program. Addictive Behaviors 2013;38(8):2402‐8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.03.013] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
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    1. Ingersoll KS, Cropsey KL, Heckman CJ. Reducing smoking among people with HIV: outcomes and lessons from three pilot projects. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 11th Annual Meeting; 2005 March 20‐23; Prague, Czech Republic. 2005.
IRCT2017080435257N1 {published data only}
    1. IRCT2017080435257N1. The effect of motivational counseling on smoking cessation. en.irct.ir/trial/26698 (first received September 11 2017).
ISRCTN11353250 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN11353250. Efficacy of smoking cessation treatment interventions for individuals with severe mental illness: a pilot randomized controlled clinical trial. www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN11353250 (first received February 6 2015).
ISRCTN50627997 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN50627997. Evaluation of the effectiveness of brief counseling for tobacco cessation during dental care in Sweden. www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN50627997 (first received July 23 2012).
Klemperer 2017 {published data only}
    1. Klemperer EM, Hughes JR, Callas PW, Solomon LJ. A mediation analysis of motivational, reduction, and usual care interventions for smokers who are not ready to quit. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2017;19(8):916‐21. [DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntx025] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
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Lasser 2012 {published data only}
    1. Lasser KE, Kenst KS, Quintiliani L, Wiener RS, Murillo J, Bowen DJ. Patient navigation to promote smoking cessation in primary care: baseline results from a pilot randomized controlled trial. Journal of General Internal Medicine 2012;27:S263.
Lennox 1998 {published data only}
    1. Lennox AS, Bain N, Taylor RJ, McKie L, Donnan PT, Groves J. Stages of change training for opportunistic smoking intervention by the primary health care team. Part I: randomised controlled trial of the effect of training on patient smoking outcomes and health professional behaviour as recalled by patients. Health Education Journal 1998;57:140‐9.
Lindqvist 2013 {published data only}
    1. Lindqvist H, Forsberg LG, Forsberg L, Rosendahl I, Enebrink P, Helgason AR. Motivational interviewing in an ordinary clinical setting: a controlled clinical trial at the Swedish National Tobacco Quitline. Addictive Behaviors 2013;38(7):2321‐4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.03.002] - DOI - PubMed
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    1. Luna L. The effectiveness of motivational enhancement therapy on smoking cessation in college students. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: the Sciences and Engineering 2005;65:5383.
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    1. Ma GX, Tan Y, Knauer CA, Toubbeh J, Choi J. A study of culturally appropriate smoking cessation for underserved Korean American smokers. Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 11th Annual Meeting, 2005 March 20‐23; Prague, Czech Republic. 2005.
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    1. Ma GX. Study of culturally appropriate smoking cessation for underserved Korean American smokers. American Public Health Association 133rd Annual Meeting & Exposition; 2005 Dec 10; Philadelphia, MA. 2005.
Mahajan 2017 {published data only}
    1. Mahajan R, Solanki J, Kurdekar RS, Gupta S, Modh A, Yadav O. Educating the handicraft factory workers about tobacco cessation and to assess its effectiveness by motivational interviewing: an Intervention study. Journal of Experimental Therapeutics & Oncology 2017;12(1):43‐9. - PubMed
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    1. Menzie NS. A motivational interviewing intervention to increase utilization of smoking cessation services among veterans undergoing substance use treatment. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 2018;79:No pagination specified.
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    1. Metse AP, Bowman JA, Wye P, Stockings E, Adams M, Clancy R, et al. Evaluating the efficacy of an integrated smoking cessation intervention for mental health patients: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials 2014;15:266. [DOI: 10.1186/1745-6215-15-266] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
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    1. Metz K, Kroeger C, Schuetz C, Floeter S, Donath C. Which smoking cessation intervention works for smokers with an alcohol addiction?. 68th Annual Scientific Meeting of the College on Problems of Drug Dependence; 2006. 2006.
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    1. Metz K, Kroger C, Donath C, Floter S, Gradl S, Piontek D. Evaluation of a motivational intervention for smokers in rehabilitation centers. Verhaltenstherapie & Verhaltensmedizin 2006;27:445‐63.
Meyer 2003 {published data only}
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Mujcic 2018 {published data only}
    1. Mujcic A, Blankers M, Boon B, Engels R, Laar M. Internet‐based self‐help smoking cessation and alcohol moderation interventions for cancer survivors: a study protocol of two RCTs. BMC Cancer 2018;18(1):364. [DOI: 10.1186/s12885-018-4206-z] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
NCT00169260 {published data only}
    1. NCT00169260. Proactive health intervention for tobacco users (Get PHIT). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00169260 (first received September 15 2005).
NCT00701896 {published data only}
    1. NCT00701896. Smoking cessation and the natural history of HIV‐associated emphysema. clinicaltrials.gov/show/nct00701896 (first received June 19 2008).
NCT00907309 {published data only}
    1. NCT00907309. Dental and medical office internet/intranet motivational enhancement therapy to reduce teen tobacco, alcohol, and drug use. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00907309 (first received May 22 2009).
NCT01098955 {published data only}
    1. NCT01098955. Smoking cessation treatment for head & neck cancer patients: acceptance and commitment therapy. clinicaltrials.gov/show/nct01098955 (first received April 5 2010).
NCT01846910 {published data only}
    1. NCT01846910. Prepare to quit ‐ a randomized clinical trial to help people quit smoking in a community dental clinic setting. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01846910 (first received May 6 2014).
NCT01982617 {published data only}
    1. NCT01982617. A randomized, controlled trial of motivational interviewing compared to psychoeducation for smoking precontemplators with severe mental illness. clinicaltrials.gov/show/nct01982617 (first received November 13 2013).
NCT02086162 {published data only}
    1. NCT02086162. Randomized controlled trial (RCT) of a motivational decision support system. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02086162 (first received March 13 2014).
Nichter 2018 {published data only}
    1. Nichter M, Mini GK, Thankappan KR. Low‐level smoking among diabetes patients in India: a smoking cessation challenge. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health 2018;6(4):176‐80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cegh.2017.11.005] - DOI
Pardavila‐Belio 2015 {published data only}
    1. Pardavila‐Belio MI, Garcia‐Vivar C, Pimenta AM, Canga‐Armayor A, Pueyo‐Garrigues S, Canga‐Armayor N. Intervention study for smoking cessation in Spanish college students: pragmatic randomized controlled trial. Addiction 2015;110(10):1676‐83. [DOI: 10.1111/add.13009] - DOI - PubMed
Parker 2007 {published data only}
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Polosa 2011 {published data only}
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Reitzel 2010 {published data only}
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Rogers 2016 {published data only}
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Severson 2009 {published data only}
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Sobell 2017 {published data only}
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References to studies awaiting assessment

Zhou 2014 {published data only}
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References to ongoing studies

Lloyd‐Richardson 2003 {published data only}
    1. Lloyd‐Richardson EE, Niaura R, Abrams DB. Informed development of smoking cessation interventions for college students (POS4‐25). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 9th Annual Meeting; 2003 Feb 19‐22; New Orleans, Louisiana. 2003.
NCT01387516 {published data only}
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NCT02905656 {published data only}
    1. NCT02905656. Strategies to promote cessation in smokers who are not ready to quit. ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT02905656 (first received 5 January 2016).
NCT03002883 {published data only}
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Salgado Garcia 2018 {published data only}
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References to other published versions of this review

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