The current state of immunotherapy for gliomas: an eye toward the future

Abstract

The last decade has seen a crescendo of FDA approvals for immunotherapies against solid tumors, yet glioblastoma remains a prominent holdout. Despite more than 4 decades of work with a wide range of immunotherapeutic modalities targeting glioblastoma, efficacy has been challenging to obtain. Earlier forms of immune-based platforms have now given way to more current approaches, including chimeric antigen receptor T-cells, personalized neoantigen vaccines, oncolytic viruses, and checkpoint blockade. The recent experiences with each, as well as the latest developments and anticipated challenges, are reviewed.

Keywords: ALT = adoptive lymphocyte transfer; APC = antigen-presenting cell; BBB = blood-brain barrier; CAR = chimeric antigen receptor; CMV = cytomegalovirus; CTLA-4 = cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated protein 4; DAMP = damage-associated molecular pattern; DC = dendritic cell; EGFRvIII = epidermal growth factor receptor type III variant; GBM = glioblastoma; GM-CSF = granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; HLA = human leukocyte antigen; MHC = major histocompatibility complex; OS = overall survival; PD-1 = programmed death 1; T-lymphocytes; TAA = tumor-associated antigen; TCR = T-cell receptor; TSA = tumor-specific antigen; brain neoplasms; cancer vaccines; glioblastoma; immunosuppression; immunotherapy; oncology.