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. 2019 Sep 30;49(3):192-203.
doi: 10.28920/dhm49.3.192-203.

Snorkelling and breath-hold diving fatalities in Australia, 2001 to 2013. Demographics, characteristics and chain of events

John Lippmann  1   2   3
Affiliations

Snorkelling and breath-hold diving fatalities in Australia, 2001 to 2013. Demographics, characteristics and chain of events

John Lippmann. Diving Hyperb Med. .

Abstract

Introduction: The aim of this study was to identify characteristics of victims of fatal snorkelling and breath-hold diving accidents in Australia from 2001-2013, inclusive, to determine underlying factors and risks associated with such activities and inform appropriate countermeasures.

Methods: The National Coronial Information System (NCIS) was searched to identify snorkelling and breath-hold diving-related cases reported to Australian coroners for the years 2001-2013, inclusive. Coronial data in the form of findings, witness and police reports, medical histories and autopsies were collected and collated, and descriptive statistics were used to analyse these data. A chain of events analysis was used to determine the likely sequence of events.

Results: There were 175 identified snorkelling-related fatalities during the study period. Most victims were middle-aged males (mean age 49 years). Pre-existing health conditions were possible contributors to 41% of the deaths, the main being ischaemic heart disease. The majority of deaths occurred in Queensland in inexperienced snorkellers, often in commercial settings. The victim's plight often went unnoticed as they were alone, or poorly supervised, when the incident occurred. Apnoeic hypoxia appeared to have been associated with at least 12.5% of the deaths. The main disabling injuries were asphyxia (40%) and cardiac incidents (35%).

Conclusion: Human factors, such as chronic health conditions, poor skills and inexperience and poor planning can play a substantial role throughout the chain of events leading to a snorkelling fatality. It is important to educate the community, doctors and dive industry professionals about potential problems associated with the interaction between certain health-related conditions, especially cardiovascular conditions, and snorkelling. Close supervision is strongly recommended for inexperienced snorkellers due to their likely poor skills, as well as for experienced breath-hold divers due to the potential for apnoeic hypoxia.

Keywords: Breath-hold diving; DAN – Divers Alert Network; Diving deaths; Fatalities; Immersion; Snorkelling.

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Conflict of interest statement

Conflicts of interest and funding

John Lippmann is the Founder and Chairman of DAN Asia Pacific. DAN is involved in the collection and reporting of dive accident data and provides evacuation cover and dive injury insurance to recreational divers. This study was funded by DAN Asia Pacific and the Australasian Diving Safety Foundation (ADSF).

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Snorkelling and breath-hold diving fatalities in Australia, 1965–2016
Figure 2
Figure 2
Mean age at death of victims of fatal snorkelling-related incidents, 1965–2013
Figure 3
Figure 3
Distribution of snorkel fatalities by age and gender (n = 175)
Figure 4
Figure 4
Comparison of disabling agents and causes of death in 175 snorkelling fatalities
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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