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Review
. 2019 Oct 3;10(10):CD013446.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013446.

Regimens of vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy

Cristina Palacios  1 , Maria Angelica Trak-Fellermeier, Ricardo X Martinez, Lucero Lopez-Perez, Paul Lips, James A Salisi, Jessica C John, Juan Pablo Peña-Rosas
Affiliations
Review

Regimens of vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy

Cristina Palacios et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy increases the risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, preterm birth, and low birthweight. In a previous Cochrane Review we found that supplementing pregnant women with vitamin D alone compared to no vitamin D supplementation may reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, and low birthweight and may increase the risk of preterm births if it is combined with calcium. However the effects of different vitamin D regimens are not yet clear.

Objectives: To assess the effects and safety of different regimens of vitamin D supplementation alone or in combination with calcium or other vitamins, minerals or nutrients during pregnancy, specifically doses of 601 international units per day (IU/d) or more versus 600 IU/d or less; and 4000 IU/d or more versus 3999 IU/d or less.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth's Trials Register, ClinicalTrials.gov, the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) (12 July 2018), and the reference lists of retrieved studies.

Selection criteria: Randomised trials evaluating the effect of different vitamin D regimens (dose, frequency, duration, and time of commencement of supplementation during pregnancy), alone or in combination with other nutrients on pregnancy and neonatal health outcomes. We only included trials that compared 601 IU/d or more versus 600 IU/d or less and 4000 IU/d or more versus 3999 IU/d or less. We did not include in the analysis groups that received no vitamin D, as that comparison is assessed in another Cochrane Review.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently: i) assessed the eligibility of studies against the inclusion criteria; ii) extracted data from included studies, and iii) assessed the risk of bias of the included studies. Our primary maternal outcomes were: pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, and any adverse effects; our primary infant outcomes were preterm birth and low birthweight. Data were checked for accuracy. The certainty of the evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach.

Main results: In this review, we included data from 30 trials involving 7289 women. We excluded 11 trials, identified 16 ongoing/unpublished trials and two trials are awaiting classification. Overall risk of bias for the trials was mixed.Comparison 1. 601 IU/d or more versus 600 IU/d or less of vitamin D alone or with any other nutrient (19 trials; 5214 participants)Supplementation with 601 IU/d or more of vitamin D during pregnancy may make little or no difference to the risk of pre-eclampsia (risk ratio (RR) 0.96, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.65 to 1.42); 5 trials; 1553 participants,low-certainty evidence), may reduce the risk of gestational diabetes (RR 0.54, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.86; 5 trials; 1846 participants; moderate-certainty evidence), may make little or no difference to the risk of preterm birth (RR 1.25, 95% CI 0.92 to 1.69; 4 trials; 2294 participants; low-certainty evidence); and may make little or no difference to the risk of low birthweight (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.66 to 1.24; 4 trials; 1550 participants; very low-certainty evidence) compared to women receiving 600 IU/d or less.Comparison 2. 4000 IU or more versus 3999 IU or less of vitamin D alone (15 trials; 4763 participants)Supplementation with 4000 IU/d or more of vitamin D during pregnancy may make little or no difference to the risk of: pre-eclampsia (RR 0.87, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.22; 4 trials, 1903 participants, low-certainty evidence); gestational diabetes (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.56 to 1.42; 5 trials, 2276 participants; low-certainty evidence); preterm birth (RR 0.85, 95% CI 0.64 to 1.12; 6 trials, 2948 participants, low-certainty evidence); and low birthweight (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.49 to 1.70; 2 trials; 1099 participants; low-certainty evidence) compared to women receiving 3999 IU/d or less.Adverse events (such as hypercalcaemia, hypocalcaemia, hypercalciuria, and hypovitaminosis D) were reported differently in most trials; however, in general, there was little to no side effects reported or similar cases between groups.

Authors' conclusions: Supplementing pregnant women with more than the current vitamin D recommendation may reduce the risk of gestational diabetes; however, it may make little or no difference to the risk of pre-eclampsia, preterm birth and low birthweight. Supplementing pregnant women with more than the current upper limit for vitamin D seems not to increase the risk of the outcomes evaluated. In general, the GRADE was considered low certainty for most of the primary outcomes due to serious risk of bias and imprecision of results. With respect to safety, it appears that vitamin D supplementation is a safe intervention during pregnancy, although the parameters used to determine this were either not reported or not consistent between trials. Future trials should be consistent in their reports of adverse events. There are 16 ongoing trials that when published, will increase the body of knowledge.

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Conflict of interest statement

Cristina Palacios received payment from the World Health Organization for preparing this protocol and subsequent review, and to cover the travel expenses to meet with co‐authors for the preparation of the protocol.

Maria Angelica Trak‐Fellermeier: none known.

Ricardo X Martinez received payment from the World Health Organization for preparing this protocol and subsequent review, and to cover the travel expenses to meet with co‐authors for the preparation of this protocol. He has also received payment from WHO for consultancy relating to other topics. Ricardo holds Growth UBS options (government options not causing conflict with this review).

Lucero Lopez‐Perez: none known.

James A Salisi: none known.

Jessica C John: none known.

Paul Lips provided expert testimony to Friesland Campina in 2015, and received a lecture fee from Abiogen in 2017, both unrelated to the present work. He is a member of the Programme Advisory Committee of the Vitamin D Workshop.

Juan Pablo Peña‐Rosas: The World Health Organization gratefully acknowledges the financial contribution of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (2016‐2019) for this work. Donors do not fund specific guidelines and do not participate in any decision related to the guideline development process including the composition of policy questions, membership of the guideline groups, the conduct and interpretation of systematic reviews, or the formulation of recommendations.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
'Risk of bias' summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 1 Pre‐eclampsia (all).
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 2 Pre‐eclampsia (by time of commencement of supplementation).
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 3 Pre‐eclampsia (by frequency of supplementation).
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 4 Pre‐eclampsia (by pre‐pregnancy body mass index).
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 5 Pre‐eclampsia (by season at the start of supplementation).
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 6 Pre‐eclampsia (by registered or not registered).
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 7 Pre‐eclampsia (by impact factor journal).
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 8 Pre‐eclampsia (by vitamin D status at baseline).
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 9 Pre‐eclampsia (by nutrients included in the supplementation).
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 10 Gestational diabetes.
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 11 Gestational diabetes (by time of commencement of supplementation).
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 12 Gestational diabetes (by frequency of supplementation).
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 13 Gestational diabetes (by pre‐pregnancy body mass index).
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 14 Gestational diabetes (by registered or not registered).
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 15 Gestational diabetes (by impact factor journal).
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 16 Gestational diabetes (by vitamin D status at baseline).
1.17
1.17. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 17 Gestational diabetes (by nutrients included in the supplementation).
1.18
1.18. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 18 Preterm birth.
1.19
1.19. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 19 Preterm birth (by time of commencement of supplementation).
1.20
1.20. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 20 Preterm birth (by frequency of supplementation).
1.21
1.21. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 21 Preterm birth (by season at the start of supplementation).
1.22
1.22. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 22 Preterm birth (by registered or not registered).
1.23
1.23. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 23 Preterm birth (by impact factor journal).
1.24
1.24. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 24 Preterm birth (by vitamin D status at baseline).
1.25
1.25. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 25 Preterm birth (by nutrients included in the supplementation).
1.26
1.26. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 26 Low birthweight.
1.27
1.27. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 27 Low birthweight (by time of commencement of supplementation).
1.28
1.28. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 28 Low birthweight (by frequency of supplementation).
1.29
1.29. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 29 Low birthweight (by season at the start of supplementation).
1.30
1.30. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 30 Low birthweight (by registered or not registered).
1.31
1.31. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 31 Low birthweight (by impact factor journal).
1.32
1.32. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 32 Low birthweight (by vitamin D status at baseline).
1.33
1.33. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 33 Low birthweight (by nutrients included in the supplementation).
1.34
1.34. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 34 Fasting glucose levels (mg/dl).
1.35
1.35. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 35 Caesarean section.
1.36
1.36. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 36 Maternal death (death while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy).
1.37
1.37. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 37 Serum 25‐hydroxyvitamin D concentration at term (in nmol/L).
1.38
1.38. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 38 Gestational hypertension (as defined by trialists).
1.39
1.39. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 39 Birth length (cm).
1.40
1.40. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 40 Head circumference at birth (cm).
1.41
1.41. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 41 Birthweight (g).
1.42
1.42. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 42 Cord blood 25‐hydroxyvitamin D concentration (in nmol/L).
1.43
1.43. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 43 Admission to special care (including intensive care) during the neonatal period (within 28 days after delivery).
1.44
1.44. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 44 Stillbirth (as defined by trialists).
1.45
1.45. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 45 Neonatal death (within 28 days after delivery).
1.46
1.46. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 46 Apgar score less than seven at five minutes.
1.47
1.47. Analysis
Comparison 1 A dose of vitamin D 601 IU/d or higher vs 600 IU/d or lower alone or with other nutrients, Outcome 47 Very preterm birth (less than 32 weeks' gestation).
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 1 Pre‐eclampsia.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 2 Pre‐eclampsia (by time of commencement of supplementation).
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 3 Pre‐eclampsia (by frequency of supplementation).
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 4 Pre‐eclampsia (by season at the start of supplementation).
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 5 Pre‐eclampsia (by registered or not registered).
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 6 Pre‐eclampsia (by impact factor journal).
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 7 Pre‐eclampsia (by vitamin D status at baseline).
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 8 Gestational diabetes.
2.9
2.9. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 9 Gestational diabetes (by time of commencement of supplementation).
2.10
2.10. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 10 Gestational diabetes (by frequency of supplementation).
2.11
2.11. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 11 Gestational diabetes (by pre‐pregnancy body mass index).
2.12
2.12. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 12 Gestational diabetes (by registered or not registered)n).
2.13
2.13. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 13 Gestational diabetes (by impact factor journal).
2.14
2.14. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 14 Gestational diabetes (by vitamin D status at baseline).
2.15
2.15. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 15 Preterm birth.
2.16
2.16. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 16 Preterm birth (by time of commencement of supplementation).
2.17
2.17. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 17 Preterm birth (by frequency of supplementation).
2.18
2.18. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 18 Preterm birth (by pre‐pregnancy body mass index).
2.19
2.19. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 19 Preterm birth (by season at the start of supplementation).
2.20
2.20. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 20 Preterm birth (by registered or not registered).
2.21
2.21. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 21 Preterm birth (by impact factor journal).
2.22
2.22. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 22 Preterm birth (by vitamin D status at baseline).
2.23
2.23. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 23 Low birthweight.
2.24
2.24. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 24 Fasting glucose levels (mg/dl).
2.25
2.25. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 25 Caesarean section.
2.26
2.26. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 26 Maternal death (death while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy).
2.27
2.27. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 27 Serum 25‐hydroxyvitamin D concentration at term (in nmol/L).
2.28
2.28. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 28 Gestational hypertension (as defined by trialists).
2.29
2.29. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 29 Birth length (cm).
2.30
2.30. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 30 Head circumference at birth (cm).
2.31
2.31. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 31 Birthweight (g).
2.32
2.32. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 32 Cord blood 25‐hydroxyvitamin D concentration (in nmol/L).
2.33
2.33. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 33 Admission to special care (including intensive care) during the neonatal period (within 28 days after delivery).
2.34
2.34. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 34 Stillbirth (as defined by trialists).
2.35
2.35. Analysis
Comparison 2 A dose of vitamin D 4000 IU/d or more vs 3999 IU/d or less alone or with any other nutrient, Outcome 35 Neonatal death (within 28 days after delivery).
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References

References to studies included in this review

Abotorabi 2017 {published data only}
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Bacqui 2009 {published data only}
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Bhatia 2012 {published data only}
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Das 2010 {published data only}
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Dawodu 2013 {published data only}
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de Menibus 1984 {published data only}
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Grant 2010 {published data only}
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    1. Grant CC, Crane J, Mitchell EA, Sinclair J, Stewart A, Milne T, et al. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and infancy reduces aeroallergen sensitization: A randomized controlled trial. Pediatric Academic Societies Annual Meeting; 2016 April 30‐May 3; Baltimore, USA. 2016:1650.8. - PubMed
Hashemipour 2014 {published data only}
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    1. Hashemipour S, Ziaee A, Javadi A, Movahed F, Elmizadeh K, Javadi EH, et al. Effect of treatment of vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency during pregnancy on fetal growth indices and maternal weight gain: a randomized clinical trial. European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 2014;172:15‐9. - PubMed
Kalra 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kalra P, Das V, Agarwal A, Kumar M, Ramesh V, Bhatia E, et al. Effect of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy on neonatal mineral homeostasis and anthropometry of the newborn and infant. British Journal of Nutrition 2012;108(6):1052‐8. - PubMed
Karamali 2015 {published data only}
    1. Karamali M, Beihaghi E, Mohammadi AA, Asemi Z. Effects of high‐dose vitamin D supplementation on metabolic status and pregnancy outcomes in pregnant women at risk for pre‐eclampsia. Hormone and Metabolic Research 2015;47(12):867‐82. - PubMed
Kiely 2015 {published data only}
    1. Kiely M. Randomized controlled trial to determine the nutritional requirement for vitamin d for prevention of deficiency during pregnancy and in the early neonatal period (D‐MAT). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02506439 (first received first received 23 July 2015). [NCT02506439]
    1. O'Callaghan K, Hennessy A, Dowling KG, Hull G, Kenny LC, Cashman KD, et al. Estimation of the dietary requirement for vitamin D in pregnancy: a dose‐response, double‐blind, randomized placebo‐controlled trial. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2017;71(Suppl 2):624.
    1. O'Callaghan K, Hennessy A, Kiely M, Kenny LC. Habitual calcium and vitamin D intakes in pregnant Irish women; preliminary data from the DMAT randomised controlled trial. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2016;75(OCE3):E191.
    1. O'Callaghan KM, Hennessy A, Hull GL, Healy K, Ritz C, Kenny LC, et al. Estimation of the maternal vitamin D intake that maintains circulating 25‐hydroxyvitamin D in late gestation at a concentration sufficient to keep umbilical cord sera >/=25‐30 nmol/L: a dose‐response, double‐blind, randomized placebo‐controlled trial in pregnant women at northern latitude. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2018;108(1):77‐91. - PMC - PubMed
Mallet 1986 {published data only}
    1. Mallet E, Gugi B, Brunelle P, Henocq A, Basuyau JP, Lemeur H. Vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy: a controlled trial of two methods. Obstetrics & Gynecology 1986;68:300‐4. - PubMed
March 2010 {published data only}
    1. Anon. Erratum for march et al. Maternal vitamin d3 supplementation at 50 microg/d protects against low serum 25‐hydroxyvitamin d in infants at 8 wk of age: a randomized controlled trial of 3 doses of vitamin d beginning in gestation and continued in lactation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2015;102:402‐10. - PubMed
    1. Chen NN, March K, Innis SM, Shand A, Dadelszen P, Lyon P, et al. The effect of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and lactation on maternal and infant 25‐hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) concentration. FASEB Journal 2013; Vol. 27, issue Suppl 1.
    1. March KM. Vitamin D dose‐response study throughout pregnancy and lactation. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01112891 (first received 29 April 2010). [NCT01112891]
    1. March KM, Chen NN, Karakochuk CD, Shand AW, Innis SM, Dadelszen P, et al. Maternal vitamin D3 supplementation at 50 ug/d protects against low serum 25‐hydroxyvitamin D in infants at 8 wk of age: a randomized controlled trial of 3 doses of vitamin D beginning in gestation and continued in lactation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2015;102(2):402‐10. - PubMed
Marya 1981 {published data only}
    1. Marya RK, Rathee S, Lata V, Mudgil S. Effects of vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy. Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation 1981;12:155‐61. - PubMed
Mir 2016 {published data only}
    1. Mir SA, Masoodi SR, Shafi S, Hameed I, Dar MA, Bashir MI, et al. Efficacy and safety of Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: A randomized trial of two different levels of dosing on maternal and neonatal Vitamin D outcome. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2016;20(3):337‐42. - PMC - PubMed
Mojibian 2015 {published data only}
    1. Mojibian M. The effect of 50000 IU Vitamin D supplement administered two weekly on neonatal and pregnant women outcome. http://en.irct.ir/trial/7525 (first received 27 February 2012).
    1. Mojibian M, Soheilykhah S, Fallah Zadeh MA, Jannati Moghadam M. The effects of vitamin D supplementation on maternal and neonatal outcome: a randomized clinical trial. Iranian Journal of Reproductive Medicine 2015;13(11):687‐96. - PMC - PubMed
Mutlu 2014 {published data only}
    1. Mutlu GY, Ozsu E, Kalaca S, Yuksel A, Cizmecioglu FM, Hatun S. The evaluation of vitamin D supplementation dose during pregnancy in a high‐risk population. Hormone Research in Paediatrics 2013;80(Suppl 1):92. - PubMed
    1. Mutlu GY, Ozsu E, Kalaca S, Yuksel A, Pehlevan Y, Cizmecioglu F, et al. Evaluation of vitamin D supplementation doses during pregnancy in a population at high risk for deficiency. Hormone Research in Paediatrics 2014;81(6):402‐8. - PubMed
O'Brien 2013 {published data only}
    1. Best CM, Pressman EK, Queenan RA, Cooper E, Vermeylen F, O'Brien KO. Gestational age and maternal serum 25‐hydroxyvitamin d concentration interact to affect the 24,25‐dihydroxyvitamin d concentration in pregnant adolescents. Journal of Nutrition 2018; Vol. 148, issue 6:868‐75. - PMC - PubMed
    1. O'Brien K. Vitamin D status impacts inflammation and risk of infections during pregnancy. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01815047 (first received 20 March 2013). [NCT01815047]
Rostami 2017 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Rostami M, Ramezani Tehrani F, Simbar M, Bidhendi Yarandi R, Minooee S, Hollis BW, et al. Effectiveness of prenatal vitamin D deficiency screening and treatment program: a stratified randomized field trial. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2018; Vol. 103, issue 8:2936–48. - PubMed
    1. Rostami M, Ramezani Tehrani F, Simbar M, Hosseinpanah F, Alavi Majd H. Rationale and design of Khuzestan vitamin D deficiency screening program in pregnancy: a stratified randomized vitamin D supplementation controlled trial. JMIR Research Protocols 2017;6(4):e54. - PMC - PubMed
Roth 2013 {published data only}
    1. Morris SK, Pell LG, Rahman MZ, Dimitris MC, Mahmud A, Islam MM, et al. Maternal vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and lactation to prevent acute respiratory infections in infancy in Dhaka, Bangladesh (MDARI trial): protocol for a prospective cohort study nested within a randomized controlled trial. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2016;16(1):309. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Roth DE. Vitamin D supplementation in pregnant and non‐pregnant women in Dhaka, Bangladesh: Pharmacokinetic and safety studies [thesis]. John Hopkins University, 2011.
    1. Roth DE. Maternal vitamin D for infant growth (MDIG) trial. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01924013 (first received 16 August 2013). [NCT01924013]
    1. Roth DE, Gernand AD, Morris SK, Pezzack B, Islam MM, Dimitris MC, et al. Maternal vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and lactation to promote infant growth in Dhaka, Bangladesh (MDIG trial): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2015;16:300. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Roth DE, Mahmud AA, Morris S, Zlotkin S, Gernand A, Tahmeed A, et al. Maternal vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and lactation to promote infant growth in Dhaka, Bangladesh (MDIG trial): a randomized controlled trial. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2017;71(Suppl 2):571.
Shakiba 2013 {published data only}
    1. Shakiba M, Iranmanesh MR. Vitamin D requirement in pregnancy to prevent deficiency in neonates: A randomised trial. Singapore Medical Journal 2013;54(5):285‐8. - PubMed
Soheilykhah 2011 {published data only}
    1. Soheilykhah S. Effect of different doses of vitamin D on insulin resistance in pregnant women attending in Shahid Sadoughi and Mojibian prenatal clinics. en.irct.ir/trial/3385 (first received 23 May 2011). [IRCT138811203312N1]
    1. Soheilykhah S, Mojibian M, Moghadam MJ, Shojaoddiny‐Ardekani A. The effect of different doses of vitamin D supplementation on insulin resistance during pregnancy. Gynecological Endocrinology 2013;29(4):396‐9. - PubMed
Stephensen 2011 {published data only}
    1. Stephensen CB, NCT01417351. Effects of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy on clinical outcomes and immune function. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01417351 (first received 6 August 2011).
    1. Zerofsky M, Jacoby B, Pedersen TL, Stephensen CB. Effects of a randomized, controlled trial of daily vitamin D3 supplementation during pregnancy on regulatory immunity and inflammation. FASEB Journal 2016;30(Suppl 1):296.7. - PubMed
    1. Zerofsky MS, Jacoby BN, Pedersen TL, Stephensen CB. Daily cholecalciferol supplementation during pregnancy alters markers of regulatory immunity, inflammation, and clinical outcomes in a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Nutrition 2016;146(11):2388‐97. - PubMed
Thiele 2014 {published data only}
    1. Anderson CM, Gillespie SL, Thiele DK, Ralph JL, Ohm JE. Effects of maternal vitamin d supplementation on the maternal and infant epigenome. Breastfeeding Medicine 2018;13(5):371‐80. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Anderson CM, Thiele DK, Ralph JL, Perley D, OHM JE. Vitamin D supplementation and DNA methylation patterns during pregnancy in and lactation in mothers and infants. FASEB Journal 2016;30(Suppl 1):Abstract no: 1028.3.
    1. Keesling Thiele D. The Impact Of Continuous Prenatal and Early Postpartum Maternal Vitamin D Supplementation on The Vitamin D Status of Exclusively Breastfed Infants [thesis]. University of North Dakota, 2013.
    1. Thiele D, Anderson CM. CS_018. Maternal vitamin D supplementation increases infant vitamin D status at birth but the impact diminishes during breastfeeding. 17th Conference of the International Society for Research in Human Milk and Lactation (ISRHML); 2014 Oct 23‐27; Kiawah Island, South Carolina, USA. 2014:122.
    1. Thiele DK, Ralph J, El‐Masri M, Anderson CM. Vitamin d3 supplementation during pregnancy and lactation improves vitamin d status of the mother‐infant dyad. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing : Jognn 2017;46:135‐47. - PubMed
Wagner 2006a {published data only}
    1. Hamilton SA, McNeil R, Hollis BW, Davis DJ, Winkler J, Cook C, et al. Profound vitamin d deficiency in a diverse group of women during pregnancy living in a sun‐rich environment at latitude 32°N. International Journal of Endocrinology 2010;2010:917428. [DOI: 10.1155/2010/917428] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Wagner CL, McNeil R, Hamilton SA, Davis DJ, Prudgen C, Winkler J, et al. Vitamin D (vitD) supplementation during pregnancy: Thrasher Research Fund RCT in SC community center networks. Pediatric Academic Societies' 2010 Annual Meeting; 2010 May 1‐4; Vancouver, Canada. 2010.
    1. Wagner CL, McNeil R, Hamilton SA, Winkler J, Rodriguez Cook C, Warner G, et al. A randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation in 2 community health center networks in South Carolina. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2013;208(2):137.e1‐137.e13. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Wagner CL, NCT00412087. Vitamin D status of pregnant women and their children in Eau Claire, South Carolina: a prevalence and supplementation model for community health care centers in the U.S. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00412087 (first received 15 December 2006).
Wagner 2006b {published and unpublished data}
    1. Appelgren KE, Nietert PJ, Hulsey TC, Hollis BW, Wagner CL. Analyzing adherence to prenatal supplement: does pill count measure up?. International Journal of Endocrinology 2010;2010:Article ID 631971. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Blanke B, Shary J, Ebeling M, Dezsi K, Wagner C. CS_033. Vitamin D protects bone mineral density in lactating women and its effect varies by race/ethnicity. 17th Conference of the International Society for Research in Human Milk and Lactation (ISRHML); 2014 Oct 23‐27; Kiawah Island, South Carolina, USA. 2014:167.
    1. Hollis BW, Johnson D, Hulsey TC, Ebeling M, Wagner CL. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: Double‐blind, randomized clinical trial of safety and effectiveness. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2011;26(10):2341‐57. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Moore RS, Mulligan JK, Harmon H, Hollis BW, Wagner CL. Immune mediators and vitamin D status in the development of comorbidities of pregnancy. Pediatric Academic Societies Annual Meeting; 2016 April 30‐May 3; Baltimore, USA. 2016:4109.85.
    1. Powell A, Shary J, Ramakrishnan V, Eckard A, Wagner C. Impact of vitamin d supplementation on bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2017;217(6):723‐4.
Wagner 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Schulz EV, Cruze L, Wei W, Garrett Mayer E, Gehris J, Wagner C. Effects of maternal vitamin D supplementation on placental gene expression. Pediatric Academic Societies Annual Meeting; 2016 April 30‐May 3; Baltimore, USA. 2016:3455.2.
    1. Schulz EV, Wagner CL, Cruze L, Wei W, Gehris J. Maternal vitamin d sufficiency and reduced placental gene expression in angiogenic biomarkers related to comorbidities of pregnancy. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 2017;173:273‐9. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Wagner CL, NCT01932788. Preventing health disparities during pregnancy through vitamin D supplementation. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01932788 (first received 30 August 2013).
Weiss 2009 {published data only}
    1. Al‐Garawi A, Carey VJ, Chhabra D, Mirzakhani H, Morrow J, Lasky‐Su J, et al. The role of vitamin D in the transcriptional program of human pregnancy. Plos One 2016;11(10):e0163832. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Al‐Garawi A, Carey VJ, Chhabra D, Morrow J, Lasky‐Su J, Koh A, et al. Differentially expressed genes during the course of pregnancy and their correlation with maternal vitamin d levels. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2015;191:A5994.
    1. Al‐Garawi A, Carey VJ, Qiu W, Mirzakhani H, Litonjua AA, Weiss ST. Cord blood vitamin D levels and gene expression profiles at birth are associated with wheezing in the first year of life: results from the vitamin D antenatal asthma reduction trial (vdaart). American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2016;193:A3168.
    1. Bhaskaran K, Smeeth L, Evans S. Prenatal vitamin d and offspring wheezing. JAMA 2016;315(24):2730. - PubMed
    1. Blighe K, Chawes BL, Kelly RS, Mirzakhani H, McGeachie M, Litonjua AA, et al. Vitamin d prenatal programming of childhood metabolomics profiles at age 3 y. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2017;106(4):1092‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Yap 2014 {published data only}
    1. Yap C, Cheung NW, Gunton JE, Athayde N, Munns CF, Duke A, et al. Vitamin D supplementation and the effects on glucose metabolism during pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 2014;37(7):1837‐44. - PubMed
Yu 2008 {published data only}
    1. Goldring ST, Griffiths CJ, Martineau AR, Robinson S, Yu C, Poulton S, et al. Prenatal vitamin D supplementation and child respiratory health: a randomised controlled trial. PLOS One 2013;8(6):e66627. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Goldring, ISRCTN68645785. Effects of prenatal vitamin D supplementation on respiratory and allergic phenotypes and bone density in the first three years of life. http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN68645785 (first received 24 June 2010).
    1. Yu C, Newton L, Robinson S, Teoh TG, Sethi M. Vitamin D deficiency and supplementation in pregnant women of four ethnic groups. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition 2008;93(Suppl 1):Fa68.
    1. Yu CK, Sykes L, Sethi M, Teoh TG, Robinson S. Vitamin D deficiency and supplementation during pregnancy. Clinical Endocrinology 2009;70(5):685‐90. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Ali 2018 {published data only}
    1. Ali A. Effect of antenatal Vitamin D3 supplementation on risk of pre‐eclampsia. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03101150 (first received 4 April 2017). [NCT03101150]
    1. Ali AM, Alobaid A, Malhis TN, Khattab AF. Effect of vitamin d3 supplementation in pregnancy on risk of pre‐eclampsia ‐ randomized controlled trial. Clinical Nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) 2019;38(2):557‐63. - PubMed
Azami 2017 {published data only}
    1. Azami M, Azadi T, Farhang S, Rahmati S, Pourtaghi K. The effects of multi mineral‐vitamin D and vitamins (C+E) supplementation in the prevention of preeclampsia: An RCT. International Journal of Reproductive Biomedicine (Yazd, Iran) 2017;15(5):273‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Bisgaard 2009 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Bisgaard H. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy for prevention of asthma in childhood (ABCvitaminD). ClinicalTrials.gov (http://clinicaltrials.gov) (accessed 31 July 2009) (first received 6 March 2009).
    1. Chawes B, Bønnelykke K, Stokholm J, Heickendorff L, Brix S, Rasmussen M, et al. Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation during pregnancy on risk of persistent wheeze in the offspring: a randomised clinical trial. Clinical and Translational Allergy 2016;6:6 [OP10]. - PubMed
    1. Chawes BL, Bonnelykke K, Stokholm J, Vissing NH, Bjarnadottir E, Schoos AM, et al. Effect of vitamin D3 supplementation during pregnancy on risk of persistent wheeze in the offspring: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2016;315(4):353‐61. - PubMed
Hajihashemi 2016 {published data only}
    1. Hajhashemi M, Khorsandi A, Haghollahi F. Comparison of sun exposure versus vitamin D supplementation for pregnant women with vitamin D deficiency. Journal of Maternal‐fetal & Neonatal Medicine 2017;32(8):1347‐52. - PubMed
    1. Hajihashemi M, IRCT2016101227998N2. Comparison of sun exposure versus vitamin D supplementation for pregnant women with vitamin D deficiency. en.irct.ir/trial/22811 (first received 15 December 2016).
Jamilian 2017 {published data only}
    1. Jamilian M, Samimi M, Ebrahimi FA, Hashemi T, Taghizadeh M, Razavi M, et al. The effects of vitamin D and omega‐3 fatty acid co‐supplementation on glycemic control and lipid concentrations in patients with gestational diabetes. Journal of Clinical Lipidology 2017;11(2):459‐68. - PubMed
Li 2000 {published data only}
    1. Li X, Gou W. Study on prevention of pregnancy induced hypertension and effect of platelet intracellular free ca˜(2+) by calcium supplementation. Journal of Xi'an Medical University 2000; Vol. 21, issue 1:46‐8.
Omotayo 2017 {published data only}
    1. Omotayo MO, Dickin KL, Pelletier DL, Mwanga EO, Kung'u JK, Stoltzfus RJ. A simplified regimen compared with WHO guidelines decreases antenatal calcium supplement intake for prevention of preeclampsia in a cluster‐randomized noninferiority trial in rural Kenya. Journal of Nutrition 2017;147:1986‐91. - PubMed
Roth 2016 {published data only}
    1. Roth DE. Maternal postpartum high‐dose vitamin D3 supplementation (6400 IU/day) or conventional infant vitamin D3 supplementation (400 IU/day) lead to similar vitamin D status of healthy exclusively/fully breastfeeding infants by 7 months of age. BMJ Evidence‐Based Medicine 2016;21(2):75. - PubMed
Sablok 2015 {published data only}
    1. Sablok A, Batra A, Thariani K, Batra A, Bharti R, Aggarwal AR, et al. Supplementation of vitamin D in pregnancy and its correlation with feto‐maternal outcome. Clinical Endocrinology 2015;83:536‐41. - PubMed
Wheeler 2016 {published data only}
    1. Wheeler BJ, Taylor BJ, Herbison P, Haszard JJ, Mikhail A, Jones S, et al. High‐dose monthly maternal cholecalciferol supplementation during breastfeeding affects maternal and infant vitamin D status at 5 months postpartum: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Nutrition 2016;146(10):1999‐2006. - PubMed
Zhang 2016 {published data only}
    1. Zhang Q, Cheng Y, He M, Li T, Ma Z, Cheng H. Effect of various doses of vitamin D supplementation on pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 2016;12(3):1889‐95. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Gerais 2015 {published data only}
    1. Gerais AS, Hussein S. Vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy and pregnancy outcome. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 2015;131(Suppl 5):E352.
Mobasheri 2016 {published data only}
    1. Azadehrah M, Mobasheri E, Behnampour N, Azadehrah M. Effect of maternal supplementation with 200 and 50,000 IU vitamin D on serum 25 (OH)D levels of pregnant women. Pharmacophore 2017;8(6S):e‐117368.
    1. Mobasheri E, IRCT2014121120276N1. Comparing the effect of therapeutic doses of 200 and 50000 units of vitamin d on serum 25(oh)d levels in pregnant women referred to shahid sayyad shirazi hospital of gorgan between 2013‐14. en.irct.ir/trial/18015 (first received 24 Serptember 2016).

References to ongoing studies

El‐Hajj Fuleihan 2015 {published data only}
    1. Chakhtoura M, Nassar A, Arabi A, Cooper C, Harvey N, Mahfoud Z, et al. Effect of vitamin D replacement on maternal and neonatal outcomes: A randomised controlled trial in pregnant women with hypovitaminosis D. A protocol. BMJ Open 2016;6:e010818. - PMC - PubMed
    1. El‐Hajj Fuleihan G, NCT02434380. Effect of vitamin d replacement on maternal and neonatal outcomes: a randomized controlled trial in pregnant women with hypovitaminosis d. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02434380 (first received 5 May 2015). - PMC - PubMed
Garreto 2016 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Garreto DJ, Persad MD. A randomized control trial of vitamin D prophylaxis in the prevention of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02920593 (first received 20 September 2016). [NCT02920593]
Hantoshzadeh 2017 {published data only}
    1. Hantoshzadeh S. Comparison of two therapeutic regimens Vitamin D3 deficiency in the first trimester of pregnancy on the level of vitamin D3 in the second trimester of pregnancy. http://en.irct.ir/trial/22353 (first received 10 July 2017).
Hartman 2010 {published data only}
    1. Hartman C, NCT01060735. The effect of different doses of vitamin d supplementation during pregnancy on bone and vitamin d status in children at birth and at one year age. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01060735 (first received 2 February 2010).
Hoffman 2017 {published data only}
    1. Hoffman S, NCT03037593. A randomized single‐center study of the effects of high‐dose cholecalciferol to reduce the incidence of gestational diabetes in high‐risk pregnant women. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03037593 (first received 31 January 2017).
Judkins 2011 {published data only}
    1. Judkins A, Krebs J, ACTRN12610001044011. Vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy ‐ a comparison of two treatments. anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?ACTRN=12610001044011 (first received 23 November 2010).
Kachhawa 2014 {published data only}
    1. Gupta T, Kachhawa G, Sharma H, Bajpai J, Kulshreshtha V, Khadgawat R, et al. A randomized double blind controlled trial to investigate the effects of vitamin D supplementation on maternal and new‐born baby's vitamin D status in Asian‐Indian subjects. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2017;21(8 Suppl 2):S44‐5.
    1. Kachhawa G, CTRI/2014/06/004670. A randomized controlled trial to investigate the effects of vitamin D supplementation on maternal and new‐born baby’s vitamin D status in Asian‐Indian subjects. ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?trialid=8544 (first received 16 June 2014).
Lalooha 2012 {published data only}
    1. Lalooha F, IRCT201205119491N2. The effect of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy on newborns antropometric index. en.irct.ir/trial/10079 (first received 16 August 2012).
McCann 2016 {published data only}
    1. McCann M, NCT02713009. Investigation of the impact of maternal body weight on Vitamin D status during pregnancy: a randomised supplementation study. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02713009 (first received 18 March 2016).
McLean 2012 {published data only}
    1. McLean M, ACTRN12612001145897. Does vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy improve maternal glucose metabolism or prevent gestational diabetes?. anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?ACTRN=12612001145897 (first received 30 October 2012).
Mosalanejad 2016 {published data only}
    1. Mosalanejad N, IRCT2016121430612N2. Compare the effect of vitamin D and calcium plus vitamin D on pregnancy outcomes in pregnant women. en.search.irct.ir/view/34642 (first received 26 December 2016).
Nausheen 2018 {published data only}
    1. Nausheen S. Assessment of dose effectiveness of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02215213 (1first received 3 August 2014).
    1. Nausheen S, Soofi S. Assessment of dose effectiveness of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy A dose comparison clinical trial. BJOG: an international journal of obstetrics and gynaecology 2018;125(Suppl 1):15.
Neyestani 2016 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Neyestani T, IRCT2016090329675N1. Evaluation the efficacy of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and newborn vitamin D status and pregnancy outcomes compared with control group. //en.irct.ir/trial/23794 (first received 25 September 2016).
    1. Neyestani TR, NCT03308487. Evaluation and comparison of the efficacy of 1000 and 2000 iu/d vitamin d supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and newborn vitamin d status and pregnancy outcomes. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03308487 (first received 12 October 2017).
Nouripour 2016 {published data only}
    1. Nouripour S, IRCT2015041321736N1. Clinical trial on the evaluation of calcium and vitamin d in the cord serum of neonates, whose mothers were under vitamin d treatment during their pregnancy. en.irct.ir/trial/18965 (first received 25 January 2016).
Rasmussen 2009 {published data only}
    1. Mosekilde L, Sikjaer T, Vestergaard P, Heickendorff L, Uldbjerg N, Langdahl B, et al. Effects of high dose vitamin D supplementation on bone metabolism in pregnant women with hypovitaminosis D ‐ A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 2015; Vol. 30, issue Suppl 1.
    1. Rasmussen GB, NCT01038453. Effects of vitamin D supplement before and during pregnancy on birth weight (gravita). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01038453 (24 December 2009).
Rich‐Edwards 2015 {published data only}
    1. Rich‐Edwards J, NCT02395081. Trial of Vitamin D supplements to raise calcidiol levels of pregnant women in Mongolia. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02395081 (first received 20 March 2015).

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References to other published versions of this review

PROSPERO
    1. Palacios C, Lips P, Martinez RX, Lopez‐Perez L, Peña‐Rosas JP, Trak‐Fellermeier MA. Regimens of vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy. http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=103763. - PMC - PubMed

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