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Meta-Analysis
. 2019 Oct 28;2019(10):CD003999.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003999.pub6.

Relapse prevention interventions for smoking cessation

Jonathan Livingstone-Banks  1 , Emma Norris  2 , Jamie Hartmann-Boyce  1 , Robert West  3 , Martin Jarvis  4 , Emma Chubb  5 , Peter Hajek  6
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Relapse prevention interventions for smoking cessation

Jonathan Livingstone-Banks et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: A number of treatments can help smokers make a successful quit attempt, but many initially successful quitters relapse over time. Several interventions have been proposed to help prevent relapse.

Objectives: To assess whether specific interventions for relapse prevention reduce the proportion of recent quitters who return to smoking.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group trials register, clinicaltrials.gov, and the ICTRP in May 2019 for studies mentioning relapse prevention or maintenance in their title, abstracts, or keywords.

Selection criteria: Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials of relapse prevention interventions with a minimum follow-up of six months. We included smokers who quit on their own, were undergoing enforced abstinence, or were participating in treatment programmes. We included studies that compared relapse prevention interventions with a no intervention control, or that compared a cessation programme with additional relapse prevention components with a cessation programme alone.

Data collection and analysis: We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane.

Main results: We included 81 studies (69,094 participants), five of which are new to this update. We judged 22 studies to be at high risk of bias, 53 to be at unclear risk of bias, and six studies to be at low risk of bias. Fifty studies included abstainers, and 30 studies helped people to quit and then tested treatments to prevent relapse. Twenty-eight studies focused on special populations who were abstinent because of pregnancy (19 studies), hospital admission (six studies), or military service (three studies). Most studies used behavioural interventions that tried to teach people skills to cope with the urge to smoke, or followed up with additional support. Some studies tested extended pharmacotherapy. We focused on results from those studies that randomised abstainers, as these are the best test of relapse prevention interventions. Of the 12 analyses we conducted in abstainers, three pharmacotherapy analyses showed benefits of the intervention: extended varenicline in assisted abstainers (2 studies, n = 1297, risk ratio (RR) 1.23, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.08 to 1.41, I2 = 82%; moderate-certainty evidence), rimonabant in assisted abstainers (1 study, RR 1.29, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.55), and nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) in unaided abstainers (2 studies, n = 2261, RR 1.24, 95% Cl 1.04 to 1.47, I2 = 56%). The remainder of analyses of pharmacotherapies in abstainers had wide confidence intervals consistent with both no effect and a statistically significant effect in favour of the intervention. These included NRT in hospital inpatients (2 studies, n = 1078, RR 1.23, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.60, I2 = 0%), NRT in assisted abstainers (2 studies, n = 553, RR 1.04, 95% CI 0.77 to 1.40, I2 = 0%; low-certainty evidence), extended bupropion in assisted abstainers (6 studies, n = 1697, RR 1.15, 95% CI 0.98 to 1.35, I2 = 0%; moderate-certainty evidence), and bupropion plus NRT (2 studies, n = 243, RR 1.18, 95% CI 0.75 to 1.87, I2 = 66%; low-certainty evidence). Analyses of behavioural interventions in abstainers did not detect an effect. These included studies in abstinent pregnant and postpartum women at the end of pregnancy (8 studies, n = 1523, RR 1.05, 95% CI 0.99 to 1.11, I2 = 0%) and at postpartum follow-up (15 studies, n = 4606, RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.09, I2 = 3%), studies in hospital inpatients (5 studies, n = 1385, RR 1.10, 95% CI 0.82 to 1.47, I2 = 58%), and studies in assisted abstainers (11 studies, n = 5523, RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.87 to 1.11, I2 = 52%; moderate-certainty evidence) and unaided abstainers (5 studies, n = 3561, RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.96 to 1.16, I2 = 1%) from the general population.

Authors' conclusions: Behavioural interventions that teach people to recognise situations that are high risk for relapse along with strategies to cope with them provided no worthwhile benefit in preventing relapse in assisted abstainers, although unexplained statistical heterogeneity means we are only moderately certain of this. In people who have successfully quit smoking using pharmacotherapy, there were mixed results regarding extending pharmacotherapy for longer than is standard. Extended treatment with varenicline helped to prevent relapse; evidence for the effect estimate was of moderate certainty, limited by unexplained statistical heterogeneity. Moderate-certainty evidence, limited by imprecision, did not detect a benefit from extended treatment with bupropion, though confidence intervals mean we could not rule out a clinically important benefit at this stage. Low-certainty evidence, limited by imprecision, did not show a benefit of extended treatment with nicotine replacement therapy in preventing relapse in assisted abstainers. More research is needed in this area, especially as the evidence for extended nicotine replacement therapy in unassisted abstainers did suggest a benefit.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

JLB: none known

EN: none known

JHB: none known

RW has received payments for lectures, research and consultancy from companies that manufacture smoking cessation medications (Pfizer, GSK, J&J). He is an unpaid advisor on the Smoke Free smartphone application and to the National Centre for Smoking Cessation and Training.

MJ: none known

EC: none known

PH was involved in three of the studies included in the review, and has provided consultancy for and received a research grant from Pfizer, a manufacturer of smoking cessation medications.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram for current update
2
2
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Behavioural interventions for abstinent pregnant/postpartum women, Outcome 1 Not smoking at delivery/last follow‐up prior to delivery.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Behavioural interventions for abstinent pregnant/postpartum women, Outcome 2 Not smoking at longest follow‐up after delivery.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Interventions for abstinent hospitalised smokers, Outcome 1 Behavioural interventions, cessation at longest follow‐up.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Interventions for abstinent hospitalised smokers, Outcome 2 Pharmacotherapy interventions, cessation at longest follow‐up.
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 Behavioural interventions for unaided abstainers, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Behavioural interventions for assisted abstainers, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 Pharmacotherapy for assisted abstainers, Outcome 1 Nicotine replacement therapy versus placebo. Cessation 12 months + after quit date.
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5 Pharmacotherapy for assisted abstainers, Outcome 2 Bupropion vs placebo. Cessation 12 months + after quit date.
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5 Pharmacotherapy for assisted abstainers, Outcome 3 Combination NRT & bupropion vs placebo. Cessation at longest follow‐up.
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5 Pharmacotherapy for assisted abstainers, Outcome 4 Varenicline vs placebo. Cessation 12 months + after quit date.
5.5
5.5. Analysis
Comparison 5 Pharmacotherapy for assisted abstainers, Outcome 5 Rimonabant vs placebo. Cessation 12 months + after quit date.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 Pharmacotherapy for unaided abstainers, Outcome 1 Cessation 12 months after quit date.
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7 Behavioural interventions for smokers. RP vs cessation, matched for programme length, Outcome 1 Group or individual format therapy (+/‐ adjunct pharmacotherapy), cessation at longest follow‐up.
7.2
7.2. Analysis
Comparison 7 Behavioural interventions for smokers. RP vs cessation, matched for programme length, Outcome 2 Self‐help format, cessation at longest follow‐up.
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8 Behavioural interventions for smokers. RP vs cessation, different intensity programmes, Outcome 1 Cessation at longest follow‐up.
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9 Interventions for smokers, tests of adjuncts to cessation programmes, Outcome 1 Behavioural interventions, cessation at longest follow‐up.
9.2
9.2. Analysis
Comparison 9 Interventions for smokers, tests of adjuncts to cessation programmes, Outcome 2 Combined behavioural and pharma interventions, cessation at longest follow‐up.
10.1
10.1. Analysis
Comparison 10 Abstinent pregnant/postpartum women subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence, Outcome 1 Not smoking at delivery/last follow‐up prior to delivery.
10.2
10.2. Analysis
Comparison 10 Abstinent pregnant/postpartum women subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence, Outcome 2 Not smoking at longest follow‐up after delivery.
11.1
11.1. Analysis
Comparison 11 Abstinent hospitalised smokers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence, Outcome 1 Behavioural interventions, cessation at longest follow‐up.
11.2
11.2. Analysis
Comparison 11 Abstinent hospitalised smokers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence, Outcome 2 Pharmacotherapy interventions, cessation at longest follow‐up.
12.1
12.1. Analysis
Comparison 12 Unaided abstainers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence ‐ Behavioural interventions, Outcome 1 Behavioural interventions for unaided abstainers.
13.1
13.1. Analysis
Comparison 13 Assisted abstainers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence ‐ Behavioural interventions, Outcome 1 Behavioural interventions for assisted abstainers.
14.1
14.1. Analysis
Comparison 14 Unaided abstainers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence ‐ Pharmacotherapy, Outcome 1 Nicotine gum vs placebo for unaided abstainers.
15.1
15.1. Analysis
Comparison 15 Assited abstainers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence ‐ Pharmacotherapy, Outcome 1 Nicotine replacement therapy versus placebo. Cessation 12 months + after quit date.
15.2
15.2. Analysis
Comparison 15 Assited abstainers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence ‐ Pharmacotherapy, Outcome 2 Bupropion vs placebo. Cessation 12 months + after quit date.
15.3
15.3. Analysis
Comparison 15 Assited abstainers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence ‐ Pharmacotherapy, Outcome 3 Combination NRT & bupropion vs placebo. Cessation at longest follow‐up.
15.4
15.4. Analysis
Comparison 15 Assited abstainers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence ‐ Pharmacotherapy, Outcome 4 Varenicline vs placebo. Cessation 12 months + after quit date.
15.5
15.5. Analysis
Comparison 15 Assited abstainers subgrouped by duration of prior abstinence ‐ Pharmacotherapy, Outcome 5 Rimonabant vs placebo. Cessation 12 months + after quit date.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

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McDaniel 2015 {published data only}
    1. McDaniel AM, Vickerman KA, Stump TE, Monahan PO, Fellows JL, Weaver MT, et al. A randomised controlled trial to prevent smoking relapse among recently quit smokers enrolled in employer and health plan sponsored quitlines. BMJ Open 2015;5(6):e007260. - PMC - PubMed
McNaughton 2013 {published data only}
    1. McNaughton B, Frohlich J, Graham A, Young QR. Extended interactive voice response telephony (IVR) for relapse prevention after smoking cessation using varenicline and IVR: a pilot study. BMC Public Health 2013;13:824. - PMC - PubMed
Mermelstein 2003 {published data only}
    1. Mermelstein R, Hedeker D, Wong SC. Extended telephone counseling for smoking cessation: does content matter?. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2003;71:565‐74. - PubMed
Morasco 2006 {published data only}
    1. Morasco BJ, Dornelas EA, Fischer EH, Oncken C, Lando HA. Spontaneous smoking cessation during pregnancy among ethnic minority women: a preliminary investigation. Addictive Behaviors 2006;31(2):203‐10. - PubMed
Niaura 1999 {published data only}
    1. Niaura R, Abrams DB, Shadel WG, Rohsenow DJ, Monti PM, Sirota AD. Cue exposure treatment for smoking relapse prevention: a controlled clinical trial. Addiction 1999;94(5):685‐96. - PubMed
Pbert 2004 {published data only}
    1. Pbert L, Ockene JK, Zapka J, Ma YS, Goins KV, Oncken C, et al. A community health center smoking‐cessation intervention for pregnant and postpartum women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2004;26(5):377‐85. - PubMed
Pollak 2016 {published data only}
    1. Pollak KI, Fish LJ, Lyna P, Peterson BL, Myers ER, Gao X, et al. Efficacy of a nurse‐delivered intervention to prevent and delay postpartum return to smoking: the quit for two trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2016;18(10):1960‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Powell 1981 {published data only}
    1. Powell DR, McCann BS. The effects of a multiple treatment program and maintenance procedures on smoking cessation. Preventive Medicine 1981;10:94‐104. - PubMed
Ratner 2000 {published data only}
    1. Johnson JL, Ratner PA, Bottorff JL, Hall W, Dahinten S. Preventing smoking relapse in postpartum women. Nursing Research 2000;49:44‐52. - PubMed
    1. Ratner PA, Johnson JL, Bottorff JL. Smoking relapse and early weaning among postpartum women: is there an association?. Birth 1999;26(2):76‐82. - PubMed
    1. Ratner PA, Johnson JL, Bottorff JL, Dahinten S, Hall W. Twelve‐month follow‐up of a smoking relapse prevention intervention for postpartum women. Addictive Behaviors 2000;25:81‐92. - PubMed
Razavi 1999 {published data only}
    1. Razavi D, Vandecasteele H, Primo C, Bodo M, Debrier F, Verbist H, et al. Maintaining abstinence from cigarette smoking: effectiveness of group counselling and factors predicting outcome. European Journal of Cancer 1999;35:1238‐47. - PubMed
Reitzel 2010 {published data only}
    1. Heppner WL, Ji L, Reitzel LR, Reitzel L, Castro Y, Correa‐Fernandez V, et al. The role of prepartum motivation in the maintenance of postpartum smoking abstinence. Health Psychology 2011;30(6):736‐45. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Reitzel LR, Vidrine JI, Businelle MS, Kendzor DE, Costello TJ, Li Y, et al. Preventing postpartum smoking relapse among diverse low‐income women: a randomized clinical trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2010;12(4):326‐35. - PMC - PubMed
Ruger 2008 {published data only}
    1. Ruger JP, Weinstein MC, Hammond SK, Kearney MH, Emmons KM. Cost‐effectiveness of motivational interviewing for smoking cessation and relapse prevention among low‐income pregnant women: a randomized controlled trial.. Value in Health 2008;11:191‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Schmitz 1999 {published data only}
    1. Schmitz JM, Spiga R, Rhoades HM, Fuentes F. Smoking cessation in women with cardiac risk: a comparative study of two theoretically based therapies. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 1999;1(1):87‐94. - PubMed
Schroter 2006 {published data only}
    1. Schroter M, Collins SE, Frittrang T, Buchkremer G, Batra A. Randomized controlled trial of relapse prevention and a standard behavioral intervention with adult smokers. Addictive Behaviors 2006;31(7):1259‐64. - PubMed
Secker‐Walker 1995 {published data only}
    1. Secker‐Walker RH, Solomon LJ, Flynn BS, Skelly JM, LePage SS, Goodwin GD, et al. Smoking relapse prevention counseling during prenatal and early postnatal care. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1995;11:86‐93. - PubMed
Secker‐Walker 1998 {published data only}
    1. Secker‐Walker RH, Solomon LJ, Flynn BS, Skelly JM, Mead PB. Smoking relapse prevention during pregnancy. A trial of coordinated advice from physicians and individual counseling. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1998;15:25‐31. - PubMed
Segan 2011 {published data only}
    1. Segan CJ, Borland R. Does extended telephone callback counselling prevent smoking relapse?. Health Education Research 2011;26(2):336‐47. - PubMed
Severson 1997 {published data only}
    1. Severson HH, Andrews JA, Lichtenstein E, Wall M, Akers L. Reducing maternal smoking and relapse: long‐term evaluation of a pediatric intervention. Preventive Medicine 1997;26:120‐30. - PubMed
    1. Wall MA, Severson HH, Andrews JA, Lichtenstein E, Zoref L. Pediatric office‐based smoking intervention ‐ Impact on maternal smoking and relapse. Pediatrics 1995;96:622‐8. - PubMed
Sheffer 2010 {published data only}
    1. Sheffer CE, Stitzer M, Brandon T, Bursac Z. Effectiveness of adding relapse prevention materials to telephone counselling. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 2010;39:71‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Shoptaw 2002 {published data only}
    1. Shoptaw S, Rotheram‐Fuller E, Yang X, Frosch D, Nahom D, Jarvik ME, et al. Smoking cessation in methadone maintenance. Addiction 2002;97:1317‐28. - PubMed
Simmons 2018 {published data only}
    1. Simmons VN, Sutton SK, Meltzer LR, Unrod M, Meade CD, Brandon TH. Long‐term outcomes from a self‐help smoking cessation randomized controlled trial. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 2018;32(7):710‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Smith 2001 {published data only}
    1. Smith SS, Jorenby DE, Fiore MC, Anderson JE, Mielke MM, Beach KE, et al. Strike while the iron is hot: can stepped‐care treatments resurrect relapsing smokers?. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2001;69:429‐39. - PubMed
Stevens 1989 {published data only}
    1. Stevens VJ, Hollis JF. Preventing smoking relapse, using an individually tailored skills‐training technique. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1989;57:420‐4. - PubMed
STRATUS‐WW 2006 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Niaura R. Long‐term maintenance of abstinence from smoking with rimonabant: results from the STRATUS Worldwide trial. 1‐year efficacy/safety results. American Thoracic Society Conference.. 2005. [clinical trials.gov ID NCT00459173]
    1. Niaura R. Long‐term maintenance of abstinence from smoking with rimonabant: results from the STRATUS Worldwide trial. 6‐month efficacy/safety results. American Thoracic Society Conference. 2004:POS1‐054.
    1. Sanofi Aventis. Information meeting. en.sanofi‐aventis.com/Images/en_050301_up_2004_Full_Year_Results_Analysts_Investor... (accessed 23 November 2006).
Tonstad 2006 {published data only}
    1. Bolin K, Mörk A‐C, Wilson K. Smoking‐cessation therapy using varenicline: the cost‐utility of an additional 12‐week course of varenicline for the maintenance of smoking abstinence. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 2009;15:478‐85. - PubMed
    1. Evins AE, Hoeppner SS, Schoenfeld DA, Hoeppner BB, Cather C, Pachas GN, et al. Maintenance pharmacotherapy normalizes the relapse curve in recently abstinent tobacco smokers with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research 2017;183:124‐9. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hajek P, Tønneson P, Arteaga C, Russ C, Tonstad S. Varenicline in prevention of relapse to smoking: effect of quit pattern on response to extended treatment. Addiction 2009;104:1597‐602. - PubMed
    1. Knight C, Howard P, Baker CL, Marton JP. The cost‐effectiveness of an extended course (12 + 12 weeks) of varenicline compared with other available smoking cessation strategies in the United States: an extension and update to the BENESCO model. Value in Health 2010;13(2):209‐14. - PubMed
    1. Knight CJ, Howard PA, Baker CL. An evaluation of the cost‐effectiveness of an extended course of varenicline in preventing smokers who have quit from relapsing [PSM3]. Value in Health 2007;10(6):A472.
Unrod 2016 {published data only}
    1. Unrod M, Simmons VN, Sutton SK, Cummings KM, Celestino P, Craig BM, et al. Relapse‐prevention booklets as an adjunct to a tobacco quitline: a randomized controlled effectiveness trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2016;18(3):298‐305. - PMC - PubMed
Van't Hof 2000 {published data only}
    1. Van't Hof SM, Wall MA, Dowler DW, Stark MJ. Randomised controlled trial of a postpartum relapse prevention intervention. Tobacco Control 2000;9 Suppl 3:III64‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Van Osch 2008 {published data only}
    1. Osch L, Lechner L, Reubsaet A, Wigger S, Vries H. Relapse prevention in a national smoking cessation contest: effects of coping planning. British Journal of Health Psychology 13;2008:525‐35. - PubMed
Veldheer 2018 {published data only}
    1. Veldheer S, Hrabovsky S, Yingst J, Sciamanna C, Berg A, Foulds J. The use of self‐directed relapse prevention booklets to assist in maintaining abstinence after a 6‐week group smoking cessation treatment program: a randomized controlled trial. Health Education & Behavior 2018;45(2):190‐7. - PubMed
Wetter 2011 {published data only}
    1. Wetter D, McClure J. A randomized clinical trial of a palmtop computer‐delivered treatment for smoking relapse prevention among women. Psychology of Addictive Behaviours 2011;25(2):365‐71. - PMC - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

ACTRN12618000408280 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12618000408280. Cessation and Relapse Prevention (CARP) Trial: nicotine vaporisers compared to standard nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation among people with co‐morbidities. www.who.int/trialsearch/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ACTRN12618000408280 (first received 21 March 2018).
Adams 2011 {published data only}
    1. Adams KK, Merritt TA. Prevention of postpartum smoking relapse in mothers to prevent infant exposure to second‐hand smoke. Journal of Investigative Medicine 2011;59:102.
Allen 2007 {published data only}
    1. Allen S, Bade T, Hatsukami D. Smoking relapse in women: effect of menstrual phase. SYM 10B Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 13th Annual Meeting; 2007 February 21‐24; Austin, TX. 2007.
Alterman 2001 {published data only}
    1. Alterman AI, Gariti P, Mulvaney F. Short‐ and long‐term smoking cessation for three levels of intensity of behavioral treatment. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 2001;15(3):261‐4. - PubMed
Berndt 2012 {published data only}
    1. Berndt N, Bolman C, Lechner L, Mudde A, Verheugt FW, Vries H. Effectiveness of two intensive treatment methods for smoking cessation and relapse prevention in patients with coronary heart disease: study protocol and baseline description. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders 2012;12:33. - PMC - PubMed
Bottausci 1995 {published data only}
    1. Bottausci AJ. An experimental study of cue exposure as a relapse prevention technique in smoking cessation maintenance. Masters Abstracts International 1995;32(3):1063.
Brown 2001 {published data only}
    1. Brown RA, Kahler CW, Niaura R, Abrams DB, Sales SD, Ramsey SE, et al. Cognitive‐behavioral treatment for depression in smoking cessation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2001;69:471‐80. - PMC - PubMed
Carmody 1988 {published data only}
    1. Carmody TP, Loew DE, Hall RG, Breckenridge JS. Nicotine polacrilex: clinic‐based strategies with chronically ill smokers. Special Issue. Pharmacological adjuncts and nutritional supplements in the treatment of drug dependence. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 1988;20(3):269‐74. - PubMed
Carmody 2017 {published data only}
    1. Carmody TP, Duncan CL, Solkowitz SN, Huggins J, Simon JA. Hypnosis for smoking relapse prevention: a randomized trial. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 2017;60(2):159‐71. - PubMed
Cather 2013 {published data only}
    1. Cather C, Dyer MA, Burrell HA, Hoeppner B, Goff DC, Evins AE. An open trial of relapse prevention therapy for smokers with schizophrenia. Journal of Dual Diagnosis 2013;9(1):87‐93. - PMC - PubMed
Cinciripini 2000 {published data only}
    1. Cinciripini PM, McClure JB, Wetter DW, Perry J, Blalock JA, Cinciripini LG, et al. An evaluation of videotaped vignettes for smoking cessation and relapse prevention during pregnancy: the very important pregnant smokers (VIPS) program. Tobacco Control 2000;9 Suppl:III, 61‐3. - PMC - PubMed
Copeland 2006 {published data only}
    1. Copeland AL, Martin PD, Geiselman PJ, Rash CJ, Kendzor DE. Smoking cessation for weight‐concerned women: group vs. individually tailored, dietary, and weight‐control follow‐up sessions. Addictive Behaviors 2006;31(1):115‐27. - PubMed
Davis 1995 {published data only}
    1. Davis MJ, Baker LJV. Smoking cessation: the use of a choice of strategies to aid cessation and maintenance. Irish Journal of Psychology 1995;16(2):150‐61.
DiSantis 2010 {published data only}
    1. DiSantis KI, Collins BN, McCoy AC. Associations among breastfeeding, smoking relapse, and prenatal factors in a brief postpartum smoking intervention. Acta Obstetricia Et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2010;89(4):582‐6. - PMC - PubMed
Dooley 1992 {published data only}
    1. Dooley RT, Halford WK. A comparison of relapse prevention with nicotine gum or nicotine fading in modification of smoking. Australian Psychology 1992;27(3):186‐91.
Dubren 1977 {published data only}
    1. Dubren R. Self‐reinforcement by recorded telephone messages to maintain non‐smoking behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1977;45:358‐60. - PubMed
Dunphy 2000 {published data only}
    1. Dunphy PM. Using an Empowerment and Education Intervention to Prevent Smoking Relapse in the Early Postpartum Period [dissertation]. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2000.
Elfeddali 2012 {published data only}
    1. Elfeddali I, Bolman C, Candel MJ, Wiers RW, De Vries H. Preventing smoking relapse via web‐based computer‐tailored feedback: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2012;14(4):e109. - PMC - PubMed
Evins 2011 {published data only}
    1. Evins AE, Pachas G, Mischoulon D, Urbanoski K, Carlini S, Sousa J, et al. A double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial of the NMDA glycine site antagonist, GW468816, for prevention of relapse to smoking in females. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 2011;31(5):597‐602. - PMC - PubMed
Feeney 2001 {published data only}
    1. Feeney GF, McPherson A, Connor JP, McAlister A, Young MR, Garrahy P. Randomized controlled trial of two cigarette quit programmes in coronary care patients after acute myocardial infarction. Internal Medicine Journal 2001;31(8):470‐5. - PubMed
French 2007 {published data only}
    1. French GM, Groner JA, Wewers ME, Ahijevych K. Staying smoke free: an intervention to prevent postpartum relapse. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2007;9(6):663‐70. - PubMed
French 2018 {published data only}
    1. French KM, Gonzalez SZ, Sherman SE, Link AR, Malik SZ, Tseng C‐H, et al. Financial IncEntives for Smoking TreAtment: protocol of the FIESTA trial and FIESTA oral microbiome substudy. Trials 2018;19(1):646. - PMC - PubMed
Froelicher 2000 {published data only}
    1. Froelicher ES, Christopherson DJ. Women's Initiative for NonSmoking (WINS) I: design and methods. Heart & Lung 2000;29(6):429‐37. - PubMed
Garvey 2012 {published data only}
    1. Garvey AJ, Kalman D, Hoskinson RA Jr, Kinnunen T, Wadler BM, Thomson CC, et al. Front‐loaded versus weekly counseling for treatment of tobacco addiction. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2012;14(5):578‐85. - PMC - PubMed
George 2000 {published data only}
    1. George TP, Ziedonis DM, Feingold A, Pepper WT, Satterburg CA, Winkel J, et al. Nicotine transdermal patch and atypical antipsychotic medications for smoking cessation in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2000;157(11):1835‐42. - PubMed
Goldstein 1989 {published data only}
    1. Goldstein MG, Niaura R, Follick MJ, Abrams DB. Effects of behavioral skills training and schedule of nicotine gum administration on smoking cessation. American Journal of Psychiatry 1989;146:56‐60. - PubMed
Gruder 1993 {published data only}
    1. Gruder CL, Mermelstein RJ, Kirkendol S, Hedeker D, Wong SC, Schreckengost J, et al. Effects of social support and relapse prevention training as adjuncts to a televised smoking‐cessation intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1993;61(1):113‐20. - PubMed
    1. Warnecke RB, Flay BR, Kviz FJ, Gruder CL, Langenberg P, Crittenden KS, et al. Characteristics of participants in a televised smoking cessation intervention. Preventive Medicine 1991;20:389‐403. - PubMed
Hall 1994 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Munoz RF, Reus VI. Cognitive‐behavioral intervention increases abstinence rates for depressive‐history smokers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1994;62(1):141‐6. - PubMed
Hall 1996 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Munoz RF, Reus VI, Sees KL, Duncan C, Humfleet GL, et al. Mood management and nicotine gum in smoking treatment ‐ a therapeutic contact and placebo‐controlled study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1996;64:1003‐9. - PubMed
Hall 1998 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Reus VI, Munoz RF, Sees KL, Humfleet G, Hartz DT, et al. Nortriptyline and cognitive‐behavioral therapy in the treatment of cigarette smoking. Archives of General Psychiatry 1998;55:683‐90. - PubMed
    1. Hall SM, Reus VI, Munoz RF, Sees KL, Humfleet GL, Frederick S. Nortriptyline and cognitive‐behavioral treatment of cigarette smoking. Proceedings of the CPDD Annual Meeting; San Juan, Puerto Rico. 1996; Vol. 52.
Hall 2011 {published data only}
    1. Hall SM, Humfleet GL, Muñoz RF, Reus VI, Prochaska JJ, Robbins JA. Using extended cognitive behavioral treatment and medication to treat dependent smokers. American Journal of Public Health 2011;101(12):2349‐56. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Prochaska JJ, Hall SM, Humfleet G, Munoz RF, Reus V, Gorecki J, et al. Physical activity as a strategy for maintaining tobacco abstinence: a randomized trial. Preventive Medicine 2008;47(2):215‐20. - PMC - PubMed
Hassandra 2017 {published data only}
    1. Hassandra M, Lintunen T, Hagger MS, Heikkinen R, Vanhala M, Kettunen T. An mHealth app for supporting quitters to manage cigarette cravings with short bouts of physical activity: a randomized pilot feasibility and acceptability study. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 2017;5(5):e74. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hassandra M, Lintunen T, Kettunen T, Vanhala M, Toivonen HM, Kinnunen K, et al. Effectiveness of a mobile phone app for adults that uses physical activity as a tool to manage cigarette craving after smoking cessation: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. JMIR Research Protocols 2015;4(4):e125. - PMC - PubMed
Juliano 2006 {published data only}
    1. Juliano LM, Houtsmuller EJ, Stitzer ML. A preliminary investigation of rapid smoking as a lapse‐responsive treatment for tobacco dependence. Experimental & Clinical Psychopharmacology 2006;14:429‐38. - PubMed
Klesges 1987 {published data only}
    1. Klesges R, Glasgow RE, Klesges L, Morray K, Quale R. Competition and relapse prevention training in worksite smoking modification. Health Education Research 1987;2:5‐14.
Lando 1997 {published data only}
    1. Lando HA, Rolnick S, Klevan D, Roski J, Cherney L, Lauger G. Telephone support as an adjunct to transdermal nicotine in smoking cessation. American Journal of Public Health 1997;87:1670‐4. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Rolnick SJ, Klevan D, Cherney L, Lando HA. Nicotine replacement therapy in a group model HMO. HMO Practice 1997;11:34‐7. - PubMed
Laude 2017 {published data only}
    1. Laude JR, Bailey SR, Crew E, Varady A, Lembke A, McFall D, et al. Extended treatment for cigarette smoking cessation: a randomized control trial. Addiction 2017;112(8):1451‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Macleod 2003 {published data only}
    1. Macleod ZR, Charles MA, Arnaldi VC, Adams IM. Telephone counselling as an adjunct to nicotine patches in smoking cessation: a randomised controlled trial. Medical Journal of Australia 2003;179:349‐52. - PubMed
Miller 1997 {published data only}
    1. Miller NH, Smith PM, DeBusk RF, Sobel DS, Taylor CB. Smoking cessation in hospitalized patients ‐ results of a randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 1997;157:409‐15. - PubMed
    1. Taylor CB, Miller NH, Herman S, Smith PM, Sobel D, Fisher L, et al. A nurse‐managed smoking cessation program for hospitalized smokers. American Journal of Public Health 1996;86:1557‐60. - PMC - PubMed
NCT00218465 {published data only}
    1. NCT00218465. Effectiveness of GW468816, an NMDA glycine site antagonist, for prevention of relapse to smoking. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00218465 (date first received: 22 September 2005).
NCT00621777 {published data only}
    1. NCT00621777. A study of varenicline for prevention of relapse to smoking in patients with schizophrenia. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/nct00621777 (date first received: 22 February 2008).
NCT01131156 {published data only}
    1. NCT01131156. Prevention of postpartum smoking relapse in mothers of infants in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01131156 (date first received: 26 May 2010).
NCT02888444 {published data only}
    1. NCT02888444. Smoking relapse prevention among COPD ex‐smokers. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02888444 (date first received: 5 September 2016).
NCT02968095 {published data only}
    1. NCT02968095. Text message support to prevent smoking relapse. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02968095 (date first received: 18 November 2016).
NCT03113370 {published data only}
    1. NCT03113370. Preventing tobacco relapse with omega‐3s trial. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03113370 (first received 13 April 2017).
NCT03262662 {published data only}
    1. NCT03262662. EVarQuit: extended pre‐quit varenicline to assist in quitting smoking. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03262662 (first received 25 August 2017).
NCT03690596 {published data only}
    1. NCT03690596. Smoking relapse prevention via just‐in‐time‐adaptive interventions. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03690596 (first received 1 October 2018).
NCT03930329 {published data only}
    1. NCT03930329. Mindfulness‐based treatment to prevent smoking relapse. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03930329 (first received 29 April 2019).
Phillips 2012 {published data only}
    1. Phillips RM, Merritt TA, Goldstein MR, Deming DD, Slater LE, Angeles DM. Supporting mother‐infant bonding increases the duration of breastfeeding in mothers with newborns in the neonatal intensive care unit. Breastfeeding Medicine 2011;6:S4.
    1. Phillips RM, Merritt TA, Goldstein MR, Deming DD, Slater LE, Angeles DM. Prevention of postpartum smoking relapse in mothers of infants in the neonatal intensive care unit. Journal of Perinatology 2012;32(5):374‐80. - PMC - PubMed
Reid 1999 {published data only}
    1. Reid RD, Pipe A, Dafoe WA. Is telephone counselling a useful addition to physician advice and nicotine replacement therapy in helping patients to stop smoking? A randomized controlled trial. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1999;160:1577‐81. - PMC - PubMed
Schlam 2016 {published data only}
    1. Schlam TR, Fiore MC, Smith SS, Fraser D, Bolt DM, Collins LM, et al. Comparative effectiveness of intervention components for producing long‐term abstinence from smoking: a factorial screening experiment. Addiction 2016;111(1):142‐55. [DOI: 10.1111/add.13153] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Schnoll 2015 {published data only}
    1. Schnoll RA, Goelz PM, Veluz‐Wilkins A, Blazekovic S, Powers L, Leone FT, et al. Long‐term nicotine replacement therapy: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine 2015;175(4):504‐11. - PMC - PubMed
Snuggs 2012 {published data only}
    1. Snuggs S, McRobbie H, Myers K, Schmocker F, Goddard J, Hajek P. Using text messaging to prevent relapse to smoking: intervention development, practicability and client reactions. Addiction 2012;107(Suppl 2):39‐44. - PubMed
Solomon 2000 {published data only}
    1. Solomon LJ, Scharoun GM, Flynn BS, Secker‐Walker RH, Sepinwall D. Free nicotine patches plus proactive telephone peer support to help low‐income women stop smoking. Preventive Medicine 2000;31:68‐74. - PubMed
Storro 2008 {published data only}
    1. Storro O, Oien T, Johnsen R. Preventing relapse of smoking among postnatal women and their partners in primary care: a controlled birth cohort intervention study. Allergy 2008;63(Suppl 88):483.
Tonstad 2013 {published data only}
    1. Tonstad S, Heggen E, Giljam H, Lagerbäck PA, Tønnesen P, Wikingsson LD, et al. Niccine®, a nicotine vaccine for relapse prevention: a phase II, randomized, placebo‐controlled, multicenter clinical trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 2013 [Epub ahead of print]. - PubMed
Yoon 2009 {published data only}
    1. Yoon JH, Higgins ST, Bradstreet MP, Badger GJ, Thomas CS. Changes in the relative reinforcing effects of cigarette smoking as a function of initial abstinence. Psychopharmacology 2009;205(2):305‐18. - PubMed
Zelman 1992 {published data only}
    1. Zelman DC, Brandon TH, Jorenby DE, Baker TB. Measures of affect and nicotine dependence predict differential response to smoking cessation treatments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1992;60:943‐52. - PubMed

References to ongoing studies

ACTRN12617000514303 {published data only}
    1. ACTRN12617000514303. Real‐time video counselling for smoking cessation in regional and remote areas. www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12617000514303.aspx (first received 7 April 2017).
Bock 2014 {published data only}
    1. Bock BC, Rosen RK, Fava JL, Gaskins RB, Jennings E, Thind H, et al. Testing the efficacy of yoga as a complementary therapy for smoking cessation: design and methods of the BreathEasy trial. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2014; Vol. 38, issue 2:321‐32. - PMC - PubMed
Brandon 2014 {published data only}
    1. Brandon TH, Klesges RC, Ebbert JO, Talcott GW, Thomas F, Leroy K, et al. Preventing smoking initiation or relapse following 8.5 weeks of involuntary smoking abstinence in basic military training: trial design, interventions, and baseline data. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2014; Vol. 38, issue 1:28‐36. - PMC - PubMed
Diaz 2016 {published data only}
    1. Diaz DB, Brandon TH, Sutton SK, Meltzer LR, Hoehn HJ, Meade CD, et al. Smoking relapse‐prevention intervention for cancer patients: study design and baseline data from the surviving SmokeFree randomized controlled trial. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2016; Vol. 50:84‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Fallgatter 2015 {published data only}
    1. Fallgatter AJ, Dieler A, Herrmann MJ, Dresler T. Non‐invasive brain stimulation ‐ a modern approach to improved therapy of nicotin addiction?. Brain Stimulation 2015;8(2):429.
Garvey 2012a {published data only}
    1. Garvey AJ, Kalman D, Hoskinson RA, Kinnunen T, Armour CD, Copp S, et al. Effects of extended‐duration counseling vs. shorter‐duration counseling after 1.5 years of follow‐up (POS4‐49). Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 18th Annual Meeting; 2012 March 13‐16. 2012:139.
Giovancarli 2016 {published data only}
    1. Giovancarli C, Malbos E, Baumstarck K, Parola N, Pelissier MF, Lancon C, et al. Virtual reality cue exposure for the relapse prevention of tobacco consumption: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2016;17(1):96. - PMC - PubMed
ISRCTN11111428 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN11111428. Relapse prevention trial. www.isrctn.com/ISRCTNISRCTN11111428 (first received 27 November 2016).
Meghea 2015 {published data only}
    1. Meghea CI, Brinzaniuc A, Mihu D, Iuhas CI, Stamatian F, Caracostea G, et al. A couple‐focused intervention to prevent postnatal smoking relapse: PRISM study design. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2015;41:273‐9. - PubMed
    1. Meghea CI, Brinzaniuc A, Rus IA, Chereches RM, Mihu D, Iuhas CI, et al. Characteristics of Romanian women who enrolled in a postpartum tobacco smoking relapse prevention trial. Public Health 2018;154:98‐101. - PubMed
NCT01162239 {published data only}
    1. NCT01162239. Maintaining nonsmoking. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01162239 (first received 14 July 2010).
NCT01305447 {published data only}
    1. NCT01305447. Getting physical on cigarettes ‐ smoking cessation & relapse prevention. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01305447 (first received 28 February 2011).
NCT01756885 {published data only}
    1. NCT01756885. Extended duration varenicline for smoking among cancer patients: a clinical trial. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01756885 (first received 28 December 2012).
NCT02271919 {published data only}
    1. NCT02271919. Varenicline and combined nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) for initial smoking cessation and rescue treatment in smokers: a randomized pilot trial. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02271919 (first received 22 October 2014).
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NCT02823028 {published data only}
    1. NCT02823028. Twitter‐enabled mobile messaging for smoking relapse prevention (Tweet2Quit). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02823028 (first received 6 July 2016).
NCT03365362 {published data only}
    1. NCT03365362. A trial of directly observed and long‐term varenicline. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03365362 (first received 7 December 2017).
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    1. NCT03673228. Preventing smoking relapse after total joint replacement surgery. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/nct03673228 (first received 17 September 2018).
NCT03760224 {published data only}
    1. NCT03760224. Effectiveness of WhatsApp online group discussion for smoking relapse prevention. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/nct03760224 (first received 30 November 2018).

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References to other published versions of this review

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