Using a cross-cohort comparison design to test the role of maternal smoking in pregnancy in child mental health and learning: evidence from two UK cohorts born four decades apart

Abstract

Background: Maternal smoking in pregnancy is associated with low birth weight (LBW), child conduct problems, hyperactivity and lower cognitive attainment, but associations may reflect measured and unmeasured confounding. Cross-cohort designs can aid causal inference through comparison of associations across populations with different confounding structures. We compared associations between maternal smoking in pregnancy and child conduct and hyperactivity problems, cognition and LBW across two cohorts born four decades apart.

Methods: Two national UK cohorts born in 1958 (n = 12 415) and 2000/01 (n = 11 800) were compared. Maternal smoking in pregnancy and child birth weight was assessed at or shortly after birth. Parents rated children's conduct problems and hyperactivity, and children completed standardized tests of reading and mathematics.

Results: Maternal smoking in pregnancy was less common and more strongly associated with social disadvantage in 2000/01 compared with 1958 (interactions P < 0.001). Maternal smoking in pregnancy was robustly and equivalently associated with infant LBW in both cohorts [interactions: boys odds ratio (OR) = 1.01 (0.89, 1.16), P = 0.838; girls OR = 1.01 (0.91, 1.17), P = 0.633]. Maternal smoking was more strongly associated with conduct problems, hyperactivity and reading in the 2000/01 cohort (interactions P < 0.001).

Conclusions: Marked cross-cohort change in associations between maternal smoking and child conduct problems, hyperactivity and reading highlights the likely role of confounding factors. In contrast, association with LBW was unaffected by change in prevalence of maternal smoking and patterns of confounding. The study highlights the utility of cross-cohort designs in helping triangulate conclusions about the role of putative causal risk factors in observational epidemiology.

Keywords: Maternal smoking; birth weight; causal inference; cognitive; conduct problems; cross-cohort comparison design; hyperactivity; triangulation.

Figure 1.

Percentage of those who smoked or did not smoke in pregnancy by family adversity for each cohort. Panel a: percentage smoking in pregnancy by housing tenure by cohort. Panel b: percentage smoking in pregnancy by marital status at birth of child by cohort. Panel c: percentage smoking in pregnancy by education status by cohort. Panel d: percentage smoking in pregnancy by occupational status by cohort. Home ownership includes owned outright or with mortgage.