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. 2020 Apr;33(2):94-102.
doi: 10.37201/req/085.2019. Epub 2020 Feb 17.

Should we leave the paper currency? A microbiological examination

M Demirci  1 , Y Celepler, S Dincer, I Yildirim, H U Çiğrikci, N Kalyenci, N Namal, H B Tokman, E Mamal, S Aksaray, O C Aktepe, M Mamal Torun
Affiliations

Should we leave the paper currency? A microbiological examination

M Demirci et al. Rev Esp Quimioter. 2020 Apr.

Abstract
in English, Spanish

Objective: Pathogens can be transmitted to banknotes due to the personal unhygienic habits. The aim of study was to find the possible pathogens on the banknotes circulating in the market and also to present their antibacterial resistance and their various virulence factors using genotypic and phenotypic methods.

Methods: A total of 150 samples of bank-notes were randomly collected between August 2017 and March 2018. VITEK systems were used for identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing respectively. Antimicrobial resistance genes (mecA, van, extended-spectrum β-lactamase [ESBL] and carbapenemases) and staphyloccoccal virulence genes (staphyloccoccal enterotoxins [SEs], pvl, and tsst-1) were determined using with real-time PCR.

Results: Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), Enterococcus spp., Gram-negative enteric bacteria, non-fermentative Gram-negative bacteria and Candida spp. were detected 48%, 54.7%, 56%, 21.3%, 18.7%, and 4%, respectively. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci and ESBL producing Gram-negative were found 46.8%, 1.3%, and 28.7%, respectively. Pvl, tsst-1, and SEs genes were found in a 2.8/4.9%, 1.4/1.2%, and 100/ 87.8% of the S. aureus/CoNS strains, respectively. The sea gene was found the most common enterotoxigenic gene. blaTEM, blaSHV, blaCTX-M-2, blaCTX-M-1, blaKPC, and blaOXA-48 were found 55.8%, 46.5%, 41.2%, 18.6%, 18.6%, and 18.6%, respectively in Gram-negative strains.

Conclusions: These results is very important to highlight hygienic status of paper currencies. This can be considered as an indication that banknotes may contribute to the spread of pathogens and antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, we may need to start using alternative products instead of banknotes.

Objetivo: Los patógenos se pueden transmitir a los billetes debido a los hábitos antihigiénicos personales. El objetivo del estudio fue buscar los posibles patógenos en los billetes que circulan en el mercado y también observar su resistencia antibacteriana así como sus diversos factores de virulencia utilizando métodos genotípicos y fenotípicos.

Material y métodos: Se recogieron al azar un total de 150 muestras de billetes entre agosto de 2017 y marzo de 2018. Se utilizaron los sistemas VITEK para la identificación y las pruebas de sensibilidad a los antimicrobianos, respectivamente. Los genes de resistencia a los antimicrobianos (mecA, van, betalactamasas de espectro ampliado [BLEA] y carbapenemasas) y los genes de virulencia estafilocócica (SE, pvl y tsst -1) se determinaron mediante PCR a tiempo real.

Resultados: Se detectó la presencia de cepas de Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus coagulasa negativos (SCN), Enterococcus spp, bacterias gramnegativas, bacterias gramnegativas no fermentativas y Candida spp en un 48%, 54,7%, 56%, 21,3%, 18,7% y 4% de los billetes, respectivamente. Se observó la presencia de S. aureus resistente a meticilina, Enterococcus resistentes a vancomicina y gramnegativos productores de BLEA en un 46,8%, 1,3% y 28,7%, respectivamente. Los genes Pvl, tsst-1 y SE se encontraron en un 2,8/4,9%; 1,4/1,2% y 100/87,8% de las cepas de S. aureus/SCN, respectivamente. El gen sea fue el gen enterotoxigénico más frecuente. Los genes blaTEM, blaSHV, blaCTX-M-2, blaCTX-M-1, blaKPC, y blaOXA-48 se encontra-ron 55,8%, 46,5%, 41,2%, 18,6%, 18,6%, y 18,6%, respectivamente en cepas gramnegativas.

Conclusión: . Estos resultados son muy importantes para resaltar el estado higiénico de los billetes. De este modo, los billetes pueden contribuir a la propagación de patógenos y de la resistencia a los antimicrobianos. Por lo tanto, es posible que debamos comenzar a utilizar productos alternativos a los billetes.

Keywords: Antimicrobial resistance genes; Bacterial contamination; Paper currency; Staphyloccoccal enterotoxins.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Distribution of SEs genes in S. aureus and CoNS
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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